Why in the news?

The Supreme Court has issued a cautionary note to Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) barring any physical excavation that could alter the character of the Bhojshala-Kamal Maula Complex.

About Bhojshala Complex

Controversy over Bhojshala Complex

• Religious Claims: Hindus regard the site as the temple of Goddess Wagdevi (Saraswati), while Muslims believe it to be the Kamal Maula mosque.
• Usage Agreement: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) allows Hindus to pray on Tuesdays and Vasant Panchami, and Muslims to offer namaz on Fridays,

Recent Developments

• Vasant Panchami Dispute: A recent order allowing Hindus to worship during Basant Panchami hours led to discontent among some Right-wing activists.
• Demand for Extended Access: Hindu groups demand all-day access to the shrine on such occasions, leading to protests and petitions filed in the High Court.

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Why in the news?

• Telangana’s Department of Heritage has recently unearthed a lead coin hoard belonging to Ikshvaku Period at Phanigiri, a renowned Buddhist heritage site.
• The coins numbering 3,730 bore an elephant symbol on the obverse and a Ujjain symbol on the reverse.

Who were the Ikshvaku (225-340 A.D)?

1. Origin and Rule

• The Ikshvaku dynasty was a feudatory under the patronage of the Satavahanas.
• Their capital was located at Vijayapuri, modern-day Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh.
• They ruled over the delta of the Krishna and Godavari rivers on the east coast of the Andhra region.
• They claimed to be descendants of the legendary king Ikshvaku, mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Rigveda and Ramayana.
• The dynasty’s founder was Vasishthiputra Chamtamula, who rose to power after the decline of the Satavahana dynasty.

2. Cultural Affiliations

• The Ikshvakus were Shaivites and performed Vedic rites, but they also patronized Buddhism, which flourished during their reign.
• Under the reign of Vasishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, the Ikshvaku kingdom reached its zenith, marked by the construction of numerous Hindu and Buddhist shrines.
• Their inscriptions and coins have been discovered at various archaeological sites, including Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Kottampalugu, Gurazala, Rentala, and Uppugunduru.

3. Decline:

• Successive rulers, such as Mathari-putra Vira-purusha-datta, Vasishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, and Vasishthi-putra Rudra-purusha-datta, contributed to the expansion and governance of the kingdom.
• By the mid-4th century, the Pallavas had gained control of the former Ikshvaku territory, marking the decline of the dynasty.

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Why in the news?

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has proposed to add information about the DNA analysis of skeletal remains found at Rakhigarhi.

About Rakhigarhi

• The ancient site of Rakhi-Khas and Rakhi-Shahpur are collectively known as Rakhigarhi, located on the right bank of the now dried up Palaeo-channel of Drishadvati.
• It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra River plain in the Hissar district of Haryana.
• Total seven mounds are located here.
• The site has yielded various stages of Harappan culture and is by far one of the largest Harappan sites in India.
• The site shows the sequential development of the Indus culture in the now dried-up Saraswati basin.

Major findings at Rakhigarhi

• Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.
• Digging so far reveals a well-planned city with 92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan.
• The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali.
• Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies.
• There are brick-lined drains to handle sewage from the houses.
• Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found.
• A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver.
• A granary belonging to the mature Harappan phase has been found here.
• Fire altars structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.

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Why in the news?

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to remove 18 “centrally protected monuments” from its list of Monuments of National Importance (MNI), citing a lack of national significance.
• ASI currently has 3,693 monuments under its purview, which will fall to 3,675 once the current delisting exercise is completed in the next few weeks.

What are Monuments of National Importance (MNI)?

• MNI in India are legally protected under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act, 1958.
• This act empowers the Centre to declare certain monuments as MNIs through official notifications published in the Gazette of India.
• It mandates the protection, preservation, and maintenance of MNIs to ensure their integrity and authenticity for future generations.
• The Act empowers the central government to appoint authorities, such as the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), to oversee the protection and management of MNIs.

Key Features of MNI Protection

• Prohibited Activities: The Act prohibits certain activities within the precincts of MNIs, such as construction, excavation, and removal of artifacts, without prior permission from the relevant authorities.
• Designated Zones: Within a 100-meter radius of the monument, construction activities are prohibited to prevent encroachment and damage. An additional 200-meter radius (100 + 200 meters) constitutes a regulated area where construction is subject to specific regulations to maintain the monument’s integrity and surroundings.
• Maintenance of Records: The Act requires the maintenance of records and registers documenting the history, conservation, and management of MNIs.

Understanding Monument Delisting

• Once delisted, monuments are no longer subject to ASI conservation efforts, allowing for regular construction activities in the vicinity.
• Section 35 of the AMASR Act allows for the delisting of monuments deemed to have lost national importance.
• The delisting process involves official notifications, with a two-month public feedback period to address objections or suggestions.

PYQ:

2015: With reference to art and archaeological history of India, which one among the following was made earliest?

1. Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar
2. Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli
3. Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram
4. Varaha Image at Udayagiri

Practice MCQ:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to remove 18 “centrally protected monuments”. This essentially implies:

1. The site will no longer be conserved, protected, and maintained by the ASI.
2. Activities related to construction and urbanisation in the area can be carried out in a regular manner.

Which of the given statements is/are correct?

1. Only 1
2. Only 2
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2

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What is the news?

A 900-year-old Kannada inscription from the Kalyana Chalukya dynasty has been discovered in a state of neglect at Gangapuram, a temple town in Jadcherla mandal, Mahabubnagar, Telangana.

Who were the Chalukyas?

Origin and Expansion:

• The Chalukyas emerged as a prominent dynasty in the 6th century CE, with their capital at Badami in present-day Karnataka.
• Pulakeshin I, the founder of the dynasty, ascended to the throne around 543 CE and expanded the empire by defeating the Kadambas, Mauryas, and other neighboring kingdoms.
• Pulakeshin II, one of the most illustrious rulers of the Chalukyan Empire, ascended the throne in 610 CE and significantly expanded its territory through military conquests and diplomatic alliances.
• The empire reached its zenith under Pulakeshin II, extending its influence over large parts of Southern and Central India, including present-day Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh.

Dynastic Divisions:

• The Chalukyan Empire witnessed the emergence of multiple dynastic branches, including the Badami Chalukyas, Western Chalukyas (also known as the Later Chalukyas), and Eastern Chalukyas (also known as the Chalukyas of Vengi).

1. Badami Chalukyas ruled from their capital at Badami and were known for their contributions to art, architecture, and literature.
2. Western Chalukyas, based in Kalyani (present-day Basavakalyan), continued the legacy of their predecessors and established their dominance over parts of present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra.
3. Eastern Chalukyas, based in Vengi (present-day Andhra Pradesh), carved out their own kingdom and played a crucial role in the political dynamics of South India.

Religion and Faith:

• The Chalukyas were patrons of art, literature, and architecture, fostering a rich cultural environment within their empire.
• They promoted Hinduism as the dominant religion and contributed to the construction of numerous temples dedicated to Hindu deities, including the famous Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal.
• The Chalukyas also patronized Jainism and Buddhism, leading to the construction of Jain caves and monasteries in regions under their control.

Decline and Legacy:

• The Chalukyan Empire faced internal conflicts, dynastic rivalries, and external invasions, leading to its gradual decline from the 12th century onwards.
• The defeat of Vikramaditya VI by the Cholas in the 12th century marked the end of the Western Chalukya dynasty, while the Eastern Chalukyas continued to rule in Vengi until the 13th century.

Administration:

• The empire was divided into administrative units known as ‘Rashtras or Mandalas’, each governed by a local administrative officer known as a ‘Mandaleshwara’.
• At the higher levels of administration, provincial governors known as ‘Rashtrakutas’ were appointed to oversee multiple mandalas and report directly to the king.
• Revenue administration played a crucial role in sustaining the empire, with land revenue being the primary source of income. The empire maintained a sophisticated system of land measurement and taxation to ensure a steady flow of revenue.

Arts and Culture:

• Sculpture flourished under the patronage of the Chalukya rulers, with exquisite examples of stone carvings adorning temple complexes and royal monuments.
• The famous Nataraja sculpture at Pattadakal, depicting Lord Shiva in his cosmic dance pose, is a masterpiece of Chalukyan art.
• Pampa, a court poet of the Chalukyas, composed the epic poem “Vikramarjuna Vijaya” (also known as “Pampa Bharata” or “Pampa Ramayana”) in Kannada, narrating the story of the Mahabharata from the perspective of Arjuna.
• The Chalukyan era witnessed the development of classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, as evidenced by sculptures found in temples such as the Mallikarjuna Temple at Pattadakal.
• Ranna, a prominent Kannada poet of the Chalukyan period, composed the “Ajita Tirthankara Purana,” an epic poem celebrating the lives of the Jain Tirthankaras.

Architecture:

• Chalukyan temples are architectural marvels, characterized by their distinctive Dravidian and Nagara styles collectively called the ‘Gadag Style’ .
• The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, built by the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya II in the 8th century, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site renowned for its intricate carvings and towering gopurams (entrance gateways).
• Similarly, the Durga Temple at Aihole, dating back to the 7th century, showcases exemplary Chalukyan architecture with its ornate pillars and sculpted panels depicting Hindu deities and mythological scenes.

PYQ:

2019: Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of

1. Chalukya
2. Chandela
3. Rashtrakuta
4. Vijayanagara

Practice MCQ:

The ‘Gadag Style’ of Temple Architecture is associated with which of the following dynasties?

1. Chalukya
2. Kakatiya
3. Rashtrakuta
4. Kadamba

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Introduction

• Recent archaeological findings in Mudimanikyam village, Nalgonda district, unveiled two Badami Chalukya temples dating back 1,300-1,500 years and a label inscription from the 8th or 9th century AD.
• These discoveries shed light on the rich historical heritage of the region.

Ancient Mudimanikyam Temples

• Dating: The two temples, constructed between 543 AD and 750 AD, exhibit the distinctive Kadamba Nagara style in the Rekha Nagara format, a rarity in Telangana.
• Architectural Significance: Research emphasizes the importance of these temples as testimonies to the Badami Chalukya period. With minimal restoration, they can serve as valuable relics of ancient architecture in Telangana.
• Comparison: Apart from the Badami Chalukya temples at Alampur, these temples stand out as exceptional examples of architectural prowess from that era.

Details of Label Inscription

• Discovery: The label inscription, found on a pillar of a group of five temples in the village, dates back to the 8th or 9th century AD.
• Meaning: While the exact meaning of the inscription, ‘Gandaloranru,’ remains unclear, ASI suggests it may denote a heroic title, with ‘Ganda’ in Kannada meaning ‘hero.’
• Historical Context: The presence of the inscription indicates the existence of five temples, known as Panchakuta, during the late Badami Chalukya period. However, these temples are no longer in use, with one missing the Shivalinga and another containing a Vishnu idol.

Badami Chalukyas: Legacy and Achievements

• Establishment: Pulakeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty in 550, establishing Badami (Vatapi) in present-day Karnataka as the capital.
• Extent of Empire: The Badami Chalukyas ruled over territories encompassing modern Karnataka and large parts of Andhra Pradesh.
• Pulakesi II’s Reign:
  1. Notable Conquests: Pulakeshin II expanded the empire northwards, halting Harsha’s advance and defeating the Vishnukundins in the southeastern Deccan.
  2. Diplomatic Relations: His reign saw diplomatic exchanges with Chinese and Persian empires, highlighting the dynasty’s international stature.
• Vikramaditya Dynasty: The dynasty experienced resurgence under Vikramaditya I, who expelled the Pallavas from Badami, and reached its zenith under Vikramaditya II, who conquered Kanchipuram from the Pallavas.
• Decline and End: The Rashtrakuta Dantidurga dethroned the last Badami Chalukya king, Kirtivarman I, in 753, ending the dynasty’s rule.

Cultural Feats

• Art and Architecture: The era witnessed the emergence of Vesara architecture, blending South Indian and North Indian styles, epitomized by monuments like the rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, Badami, and Aihole.
• Coinage: Unique Coinage: Chalukya coins bore legends in Nagari and Kannada scripts, featuring symbols like temples, lions, and lotuses.
• Religious Patronage: Initially adherents of Vedic Hinduism, the Chalukyas later embraced Shaivism, fostering sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas, and Kalamukhas, while also promoting Jainism.

Government and Administration:

• Military Prowess: The Chalukya army, comprising infantry, cavalry, and a formidable navy, employed innovative strategies, including intoxicating elephants before battle.
• Administrative Structure: The empire was divided into provinces, districts, and smaller administrative units, with feudal lords governing autonomous regions.

Try this PYQ from CSP 2019:

Q. Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction I the kingdom of:

a) Chalukya

b) Chandela

c) Rashtrakuta

d) Vijayanagara

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Introduction

• India will showcase some relics of Lord Buddha, currently in its possession, in Thailand from February 22 to March 18.

Kapilvastu Relics: Details

• Designation: The relics of Lord Buddha and his disciples Arahata Sariputra and Arahata Maudgalayana are known as the ‘Kapilvastu Relics.’
• Origin: These relics, comprising 20 bone fragments, have been preserved at India’s National Museum.
• Discovery: They were recovered in 1898 from a site in Bihar believed to be the ancient city of Kapilvastu. It was an inscribed casket found at the stupa site in Piprahwa (near Siddharthnagar in UP) that helped identify Kapilavastu.
• Age: Dating back to the 4th or 5th Century BC, these relics were discovered in Bihar’s Piprahwa, believed to be the ancient city of Kapilvastu.
• Excavation Details: The ASI unearthed these relics during excavations conducted from 1971 to 1977, discovering two inscribed steatite stone caskets containing 12 and 10 sacred relics, respectively.

Public Display in Thailand

• Previous Exhibitions: Portions of these relics were earlier exhibited in Sri Lanka (1976, 2012), Mongolia (1993, 2022), Singapore (1994, 2007), South Korea (1995), and Thailand (1995).
• Construction of Pagoda: The Thai government has built a special pagoda in Bangkok to enshrine the relics during the exhibition.

Significance of Display: Promotion of Indian Diplomacy

• Diplomatic Achievement: This event signifies a diplomatic achievement for India, strengthening ties with Thailand and promoting cultural exchange.
• Buddhist Circuit Development: The initiative aligns with India’s ‘Look East’ policy and emphasizes the promotion of soft power through cultural exchanges.
• Past Engagements: India previously sent the relics to Mongolia in 2022 and Sri Lanka in 2012, showcasing its commitment to fostering cultural and spiritual ties.

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Introduction

• Legend has it that Lodrani, a hamlet near Dholavira in Kutch, was believed to be sitting on buried gold, prompting locals to initiate a dig around five years ago.
• Contrary to expectations, the excavation led to the discovery of a fortified Harappan-era settlement, challenging the assumptions about the area’s history.

Archaeological Findings at Lodrani

• Harappan-Era Settlement: Ajay Yadav and Damian Robinson from Oxford’s School of Archaeology led the archaeological exploration, revealing a well-preserved Harappan settlement.
• Architectural Resemblance to Dholavira: Yadav notes striking architectural similarities between the newly discovered site, named Morodharo, and Dholavira.
• Flourishing Ancient Life: Despite being initially dismissed as a medieval fortress, the site unveils evidence of a thriving civilization dating back around 4,500 years.

Significance

• Harappan Pottery: The site yielded a significant amount of Harappan pottery akin to findings at Dholavira, indicating a connection between the two settlements.
• Chronological Placement: Experts suggest Morodharo exhibits characteristics of mature to late Harappan periods (2,600-1,300 BCE), shedding light on the region’s ancient chronology.

Insights from Archaeologists

• Dependence on the Sea: Both Dholavira and Morodharo depended on the sea, suggesting navigable waters near the Rann of Kutch during ancient times.
• Archaeological Fame: Despite false starts in the past, Lodrani now claims archaeological fame, highlighting the importance of local initiatives in uncovering historical treasures.

About Dholavira

Try this PYQ:

Q. Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs?

(a) Dholavira (b) Kalibangan (c) Rakhigarhi (d) Ropar

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Introduction

• A 1,000-year-old stone statue of Thirthangara Mahavir has been found in Tamil Nadu at at Manavarayanendal near Thiruchuli in Virudhunagar district.

Features of the Statue

• There is a triple umbrella above the head of the statue, which has creepers carved on it.
• It is flanked by sculptures of yakshas.
• Based on the sculpture technique, it is assumed that the statue might belong to the 11th century AD.

About Vardhaman Mahavir

Everything you need to know about Jainism

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Introduction

• The Hastsal Minar, also known as the Mini Qutub Minar or Chhota Qutub Minar, stands as a Grade A heritage monument in Delhi, silently narrating stories of an era marked by grandeur and mystery amidst ruins and encroachment.

About Hastsal Minaret

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Introduction

• The Varanasi District Court has issued an order permitting Hindu prayers to be conducted in the southern cellar of the Gyanvapi mosque complex, a decision met with both support and opposition.
• This development comes amid ongoing legal disputes concerning the worship rights at the site.

Allowing Prayers: Court’s Ruling

• Prayers Allowed: The Varanasi District Court has directed the district administration to facilitate the resumption of puja (worship) within the disputed southern cellar of the Gyanvapi mosque complex within seven days.
• Background: The order followed an application filed by Shailendra Kumar Pathak, the priest of the Acharya Ved Vyas Peeth temple, seeking worship rights for visible and invisible deities in the basement of the mosque.

Reaction and Legal Challenges

• Legal Challenge: The Anjuman Intezamia Committee of Gyanvapi Masjid, advised by the All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB), intends to challenge the court’s decision in the Allahabad High Court.
• AIMPLB’s Stance: AIMPLB criticized the court’s ruling as “totally unacceptable” and drew parallels to past disputes like the opening of locks at the Babri Masjid in 1986. They expressed concerns about the targeting of old mosques after the establishment of the Ram Mandir in Ayodhya.

Historical Perspective

• Prior Worship: The petitioner claimed that Hindu priests associated with the Vyas family used to perform daily rituals in the cellar before 1993 when it was discontinued by government orders.
• Contested Claims: A member of the Anjuman Intezamia committee contested the assertion, stating that there had never been any puja conducted in the cellar.

Ongoing Legal Proceedings

• Next Hearing: The next hearing on this matter is scheduled for February 8, allowing the defendants, including the Anjuman Intejamia Masajid Committee that manages the Gyanvapi mosque, to file objections.
• Parallel Legal Challenge: Another order by the Allahabad High Court concerns a revision application challenging the Varanasi district judge’s refusal to direct the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a scientific survey of the mosque’s wazukhana area.

Concerns and Historical Parallels

• Ethical Concerns: The decision to permit puja in the Gyanvapi mosque’s basement raises ethical questions and concerns about religious rights.
• Parallels to History: AIMPLB sees parallels between recent developments and past disputes, raising concerns about historical patterns of targeting old mosques.

Conclusion

• The Varanasi District Court’s ruling allowing Hindu prayers in the Gyanvapi mosque’s southern cellar has ignited both legal challenges and discussions about religious rights and historical parallels.
• The case continues to be a subject of significant debate and legal scrutiny.

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Introduction

• The Gyanvapi Structure sin Varanasi has been the center of a longstanding controversy regarding its historical origin and the existence of a Hindu temple preceding its construction.
• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has recently concluded that a Hindu temple indeed existed at the site before the mosque’s construction, relying on scientific studies, textual evidence, and historical accounts.

Gyanvapi: Historical Background

• Temple’s Existence: The ASI’s findings suggest that a substantial Hindu temple once stood adjacent to the Kashi Vishwanath temple, which is believed to have been demolished during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• Persian Chronicles: The primary source for this claim is Saqi Mustaid Khan’s Maasir-i-Alamgiri, a Persian chronicle written shortly after Aurangzeb died in 1707. It mentions Aurangzeb’s orders to destroy temples and schools of the “infidels.”
• Aurangzeb’s Policy: Historians interpret this as part of Aurangzeb’s broader policy against Hinduism, marked by the destruction of temples and discriminatory measures, such as customs duties.

Historical Interpretations

• Selective Targeting: Some historians argue that the 1669 decree was not a blanket order to destroy all temples but targeted institutions where certain teachings took place, especially in Benares (now Varanasi).
• Conflict with Shivaji: It is suggested that Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of the Kashi temple as retribution following Chhatrapati Shivaji’s escape from Mughal custody.
• Religious Cloth: The Gyanvapi Mosque incorporates a part of the ruined temple’s wall, possibly serving as a religious statement of the consequences of opposing Mughal authority.

Expert Opinions and Legal Implications

• ASI Report: The ASI’s extensive report provides expert evidence but can be contested in court during the ongoing legal battle.
• Witnesses and Cross-Examination: The civil suit involves witnesses from various fields, including historians, archaeologists, and religious experts, who will be cross-examined.
• Court Determination: The courts will decide whether the ASI report can be conclusively relied upon and assess the significance of the existence of a Hindu temple in determining the mosque’s religious character.

Legal and Constitutional Aspects

• Maintainability Issue: The preliminary issue of whether the suit can be filed depends on the fate of the Places of Worship Act, 1991, which aims to maintain the religious character of places of worship as of August 15, 1947.
• Relevance of ASI Report: The relevance of the ASI report could change significantly if the 1991 law is altered or struck down. Currently, the law is considered a fundamental feature of the Constitution, safeguarding secularism.
• Secularism and Non-Retrogression: The Places of Worship Act is seen as essential in upholding the principles of secularism and non-retrogression, core elements of India’s Constitution.

Conclusion

• The controversy surrounding the Gyanvapi Mosque underscores the complexities of historical interpretation and legal implications.
• The ASI’s findings, while significant, are part of an ongoing legal process, and the final determination will have far-reaching consequences on the historical narrative and religious character of the site.

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Introduction

• A recent joint study by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur has uncovered significant findings in Vadnagar, PM Modi’s native village.
• Contrary to the common belief of a “Dark Age” following the Harappan collapse, the study suggests a continuous cultural presence in the region.

Vadnagar: Mysteries Revealed 

• Historical Significance: The discovery is crucial as it fills a gap in Indian archaeological history between 1,500 BCE and 500 BCE, suggesting a continuous human settlement over 5,500 years.
• Multicultural Settlement: Vadnagar was identified as a site with diverse cultural and religious influences, including Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, and Islamic.
• Cultural Continuity: Evidence suggests that Vadnagar could date back to 1,400 BCE, aligning with the late phase of the post-urban Harappan period.
• Archaeological Artifacts: The site revealed a variety of artifacts, including potteries, copper, gold, silver, iron objects, and intricately designed bangles.
• Climatic Influence on History: The study indicates that climatic changes significantly influenced the rise and fall of kingdoms and invasions in India over a 3,000-year period.
• Successive Rulers: Radiocarbon dating shows that Vadnagar was successively ruled by various kingdoms and empires, including the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians (Kshatrapa kings), Maitrakas (Gupta kingdom), Rashtrakuta-Pratihara-Chawada kings, Solanki kings (Chalukya rule), Sultanate-Mughals, and Gaekwad/British.
• Migration Trigger: The team inferred that cold arid/hyper-arid conditions might have triggered migration from central Asia.

Challenging the “Dark Age” Narrative

• Redefining Historical Gaps: The findings challenge the notion of a ‘Dark Age’ following the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization around 4,000 years ago and before the emergence of Iron Age cities like Gandhar, Koshal, and Avanti.
• Vadnagar’s Significance: Evidence from Vadnagar challenges this narrative, suggesting it as one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities within a single fortification in India.
• Potential Harappan Continuity: Preliminary radiocarbon dating indicates that Vadnagar’s settlement could date back to 1400 BCE, aligning with the late phase of the post-urban Harappan period.

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Introduction

• The Indian History Congress (IHC), a prominent body of historians, has recently taken a stand against the proposed demolition of the Sunehri Masjid, a late medieval mosque in New Delhi.
• Since 1984, the IHC has consistently advocated for the protection of monuments, emphasizing that all structures over 200 years old should be strictly preserved under the Protection of Monuments Act.

About Sunehri Masjid

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Introduction

• Floods Uncover Historical Artifacts: The recent floods in Mulugu district, Telangana, have led to the discovery of Paleolithic quartzite tools, shedding new light on the region’s ancient human habitation.
• Discovery by Amateur Historians: The tools were found in a dried-up stream bed by a team led by Sriramoju Haragopal, an amateur historian.

About Paleolithic Age

Details of the Discovery

• Location of Find: The hand axes were discovered between Gurrevula and Bhupatipuram villages in Mulugu district.
• Specific Find: Researchers found a significant stone axe measuring 15.5 cm in length, 11 cm in width, and 5.5 cm in thickness.

Context and Comparison

• Global Significance: Similar hand axes have been discovered worldwide, indicating a common tool type used by early humans for various purposes.
• Historical Context in India: The first discovery of a Paleolithic site in India was in 1863 at Attirampakkam near Madras (now Chennai), with bifacial hand-axes dating back to about 15 lakh years, known as the Madras Hand-Axe Industry or Madrasian Culture.

Historical Significance

• Paleolithic Era Tools: According to paleontologists, the stone axe dates back to the Lower Paleolithic period, approximately 30 lakh years ago.
• Tool Identification: The tools were identified based on their chipping style, material, and size, typical of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers who used heavy quartzite for large tools.

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Central Idea

• The newly elected Madhya Pradesh CM asserted that Ujjain, was the reference for world time 300 years ago, before the Prime Meridian shifted to Paris and then Greenwich.
• For UPSC aspirants, understanding these nuances is essential for a comprehensive grasp of India’s scientific heritage and its global context.

Time Measurement and Ujjain’s Role

• Ujjain’s Central Meridian: Before Greenwich’s establishment in 1884, Ujjain was the central meridian for time in India, influencing Hindu almanac calculations.
• Vedshala Observatory: The Vedshala or Government Jiwaji Observatory in Ujjain offers insights into ancient Indian timekeeping methods.

Ujjain’s Geographical and Astronomical Significance

• Surya Siddhanta’s Contributions: This 4th-century astronomical treatise positions Ujjain at the intersection of the zero meridian of longitude and the Tropic of Cancer, highlighting its global importance.
• Astronomical Landmarks: Ujjain’s location on the Tropic of Cancer, intersecting significant temples, underscores its historical and religious significance in Hindu cosmogony.

Legacy of Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II and the Vedshala

• Observatory’s Origins: Built between 1725-1730 by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, the Vedshala was inspired by the observatory in Samarkand and predates those in Jaipur, Delhi, Mathura, and Varanasi.
• Motivation for Construction: Jai Singh’s initiative to educate the country in astronomy was sparked by a debate in the Mughal court over astronomical calculations.

Ujjain’s Astronomical Heritage and Contributions

• Center for Ancient Astronomy: Ujjain was a hub for astronomical and mathematical studies, home to scholars like Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskaracharya.
• Vikram Samvat Calendar: King Vikramaditya’s establishment of the Vikram Samvat calendar around 58–56 B.C. further cements Ujjain’s historical importance.

Exploring the Vedshala’s Instruments and Functions

• Yantras and Their Uses: The observatory houses various instruments (yantras) for measuring time, celestial altitudes, planetary motions, and eclipses.
• Unique Instruments: The Shankhu Yantra, Samrat Yantra, Digansha Yantra, Nadi Valay Yantra, and Bhitti Yantra demonstrate the sophistication of ancient Indian astronomical tools.
• Taramandel Shows: The observatory also features a planetarium offering educational shows about celestial bodies.

Ongoing Astronomical Research and Preservation

• Renovation and Continuation of Studies: Maharaja Madhav Rao Scindia of Gwalior renovated the observatory in 1923, ensuring the continuation of astronomical research.
• Annual Ephemeris Publication: The observatory publishes an ephemeris, detailing the daily positions and movements of planets.

Conclusion

• Balancing Historical Pride and Scientific Accuracy: While appreciating Ujjain’s rich astronomical heritage, it’s crucial to distinguish between historical significance and contemporary scientific standards.
• Insights for UPSC Aspirants: Understanding Ujjain’s role in ancient timekeeping and astronomy offers UPSC aspirants a nuanced perspective on India’s scientific contributions and cultural heritage.
• Enduring Legacy: Ujjain’s astronomical legacy, exemplified by the Vedshala Observatory, continues to be a testament to India’s historical advancements in science and time measurement.

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Central Idea

• Unique prehistoric rock art has been found in the Andriamamelo Cave in western Madagascar, marking a first for the island.
• It reveals pictorial art with nature, human-like, and animal-like figures.

Andriamamelo Cave Art: Key Features

• Beyond Basic Symbols: Previously, Madagascar’s rock art mainly featured basic symbols. The new findings depict more complex scenes and figures.
• Egyptian Religious Motifs: Some scenes bear a resemblance to motifs from Egypt’s Ptolemaic period (300-30 BCE). Major images hint at Egyptian deities like Horus, Thoth, Ma`at, and Anubis.
• Ethiopian and Afro-Arab Connections: Symbols and writings suggest cultural links to the Ethiopian and Afro-Arab worlds.
• Borneo Cave Art Style: The art shares similarities with a two-millennia-old cave art style from Borneo.
• Depiction of Extinct Animals: The art may depict at least three extinct animals of Madagascar, including a giant sloth lemur, elephant birds, and a giant tortoise.
• Mysterious M-Figures: The ubiquitous M-shaped symbol matches the Amharic alphabet’s “hawt” and is linked to the concept of the “breath of life” in some Austronesian languages.
• Absence of Modern and Religious Symbols: The art lacks Christian, Muslim, Hindu symbols, and modern motifs, indicating its ancient origins.

Dating Challenges and Speculations

• Difficulty in Dating: Direct dating of the cave art is challenging due to the inorganic nature of the black pigment.
• Estimated Age: The presence of extinct animals and absence of modern symbols suggest the art could be around 2,000 years old.
• Potential Historical Evidence: The art might provide insights into who colonized Madagascar and when.

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Central Idea

• Ancient relics belonging to the Nolamba Pallavas dynasty were unearthed in Cholemarri village, situated 22 km from Penukonda in Sri Sathya Sai district.

Significant Findings

• Battlefield Site: Evidence suggests a fierce battle in the 9th century AD between the Nolamba Pallavas and the Bhana-Vaidambas.
• Inscriptions and Artifacts:

• 1. An inscription of Mahendra Nolambadhi Raja (875-897 AD), ruler of Henjeru (now Hemavati), was found in the fields.
  2. Hero stones with Telugu inscriptions (written in ancient Kannada script) from the Nolamba and Vijayanagara periods were discovered near Anjaneyaswamy temple.

About the Nolamba Dynasty

• Time Period: Ruled from the 8th to the 12th centuries C.E.
• Geographical Extent: Nolambavadi region, covering parts of southeast Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Political History: Initially feudatories to Pallavas, Chalukyas of Badami, Gangas, and Rashtrakutas, later to Chalukyas of Kalyani. Often referred to as Nolamba Pallava in inscriptions.
• Capitals: Initially Chitradurga, later shifted to Hemavati.
• Origin:
  • Founded by Mangala Nomabathi Raja (735–785 A.D.).
  • Emerged as governors under Pallavas and Chalukyas.
  • Experienced shifts in allegiance between Pallavas, Chalukyas, Banas, and Vaidumbas.
  • The term “Nolambas” came into existence post the Chalukyas’ resurgence under Vikramaditya I.
• Decline: Overrun by Ganga king Marasimha, who claimed the title Nolambakulantaka.
• Cultural Contributions: Known for constructing grand temple complexes like Kalleshwara Temple in Aralaguppe, Bhoganandishwara Temple in Nandi, and Ramalingeshwara Temple in Avani.
• Religious Affiliation: Predominantly Shaivites, with temples dedicated to Lord Shiva.

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Central Idea

• UK PM Rishi Sunak cancelled his meeting with visiting Greek PM over the latter’s comments on ancient Parthenon Sculptures housed in the British Museum.

Parthenon Sculptures

• The Parthenon Sculptures are ancient Greek stone sculptures over 2,000 years old, originally part of the Parthenon temple in Athens.
• These sculptures, including a 75-meter-long frieze, are significant artifacts of Athens’ Golden Age, depicting gods, heroes, and mythical beings.
• In the early 19th century, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin and British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, removed the sculptures from the Parthenon.
• The marbles were subsequently purchased by British Museum in 1816.

Debate over Legitimacy

• Greece has accused Lord Elgin of stealing the sculptures, while he maintained he had permission from the Ottoman authorities.
• The original document granting permission has been lost, leading to disputes over its authenticity and content.

Greece’s Campaign for Return

• Greece’s demand for the sculptures’ return dates back to its independence in the early 1830s.
• The campaign gained momentum in the 1980s, spearheaded by Greek actress and then-culture minister Melina Mercouri.
• The British Museum argues that the sculptures were legally acquired and rejects Greece’s demands for their return.
• The museum contends that public benefit lies in having the sculptures in two locations, citing the impossibility of reassembling them completely and concerns over safe return.

Current Developments

• Prime Minister Sunak has described the marbles as a significant asset to the UK and opposes changing laws to facilitate their return.
• Despite the cancelled meeting, Greek officials intend to continue negotiations with the British Museum.

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Central Idea

• Kerala Tourism has launched a project to improve civic amenities around the Edakkal Caves in Wayanad, known for its rock art from prehistoric times.

About Edakkal Caves

• The Edakkal Caves are situated in the Wayanad district of Kerala on Ambukutty Mala, a prominent hill in the region
• It is not a typical cave but rather a natural cleft, rift, or rock shelter created by a piece of rock splitting away from the main body.
• It was discovered in 1890 by Fred Fawcett, a British police official.
• The caves are also known as “Ampukuthy Mala,” with a local belief that they were created by Rama’s sons, Lava and Kusha, who struck arrows on the mountain.

Significance of the caves

• Historical Significance: The caves are historically significant as they are situated near an ancient trade route connecting the high mountains of Mysore to the ports of the Malabar Coast.
• Pictorial Writings: Inside the Edakkal Caves, there are pictorial writings believed to date back to at least 6,000 BCE during the Neolithic period.
• Unique Stone Age Carvings: The Stone Age carvings are rare and represent the only known examples from South India, which belong to the Mesolithic era.
• Cultural Significance: The petroglyphs found include depictions of human and animal figures, tools used by humans, and enigmatic symbols yet to be deciphered, indicating a rich cultural and historical heritage.
• Indus Valley Connect: Some of the paintings found in the Edakkal Caves, particularly those of a “man with jar cup,” have led to speculation about a possible connection to the Indus Valley civilization.

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Central Idea

• An eminent archaeologist made a remarkable discovery during an archaeological expedition near Mangaluru.
• They uncovered a rare inscription linked to the Alupa dynasty, shedding new light on the region’s historical tapestry.

About Alupa Dynasty

• Alupa Dynasty: The inscription marks the first recorded mention of the Alupa dynasty, a historically significant ruling lineage of the region of Tulu Nadu.
• Regal Demise: Notably, the inscription commemorates the death of an Alupa king, providing a unique glimpse into this ancient dynasty’s history.
• Siri Cult References: The inscription also contains terms related to the Siri cult, including Siri, Dalya, and Chattara (Chatra), hinting at cultural and religious practices of the era.

Archaeological Findings

• Keerthi Sthamba: The inscription highlights the role of Kesava in erecting a monument dedicated to Kulashekara Alupendra. A Keerthi sthamba, a pillar, found within the inscription mirrors an original pillar located in Kulashekara, a suburb of Mangaluru.
• Intricate Details: The inscription features two panels at the top, with a Kannada script below, showcasing 12th-century characters and announcing the death of Alupendra I.
• Royal Depictions: Human figures within the inscription represent Kulashekara Alupendra. One panel portrays him in a Tribhanga posture, wielding a sword and holding a gurani (shield). Adjacent to it, the king is depicted seated in a meditative pose, resting his palms on his legs.

Significance in Tuluva History

• Tuluva Culture: This discovery provides valuable insights into the customs, beliefs, and societal structure of the Alupa dynasty’s time.
• Soma Cult: The Soma cult, established by Soma Sharma in the 11th century AD in Gujarat, finds a connection to this region. The Someshwara temple, built in honor of Soma during Kulashekara Alupendra’s reign, stands as a testament to this cultural fusion.

Who was Kulashekara Alupendra?

• The Alupa Legacy: Kulashekara Alupendra I, a prominent ruler of the Alupas in South Canara, played a pivotal role in shaping the region’s history.
• City Establishment: He founded the city of Kulashekara in Mangaluru and enacted stringent regulations for temple administration, which continue to influence temple governance in the region.
• Language and Culture: Alupendra I was a patron of the Tulu language and culture, contributing to their preservation and promotion. His reign spanned from 1156 to 1215 A.D., with this inscription datable to the 12th century based on palaeography.

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Central Idea

• A groundbreaking 21-meter-long ship, constructed using an age-old technique of stitching wooden planks with ropes, cords, coconut fibers, natural resins, and oils, is scheduled to embark ‘Baliyatra’ from Odisha to Bali, Indonesia.
• The initiative, led by the Govt. of India, aims to rekindle the nation’s rich maritime tradition and heritage.
• This remarkable journey will be manned by a crew from the Indian Navy.

Early Evidence of Maritime Trade

• Ancient Maritime Trade: The presence of maritime trade networks dating back to circa 3300-1300 BCE is supported by evidence from the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and coastal sites along the Arabian Sea. The engineering marvel of the dock at Lothal in Gujarat stands as a testament to the Indus civilization’s profound understanding of tides and winds.
• Historical Accounts: Ancient texts, including the Vedas (circa 1500-500 BCE), contain vivid accounts of seafaring adventures and the associated risks. Furthermore, the Jataka Tales (circa 300 BCE-400 CE) and Tamil Sangam literature (circa 300 BCE-300 CE) provide explicit references to maritime activities.

Challenges in Recognizing Maritime Heritage

• Historiographical Biases: Historians have often marginalized India’s maritime heritage in favor of narratives centered on land-based polities. This bias has led to the neglect of India’s maritime contributions.
• Emergence of Deep-Sea Voyages: The 1st century BCE witnessed intensified mid-ocean voyages driven by the Roman Empire’s demand for Eastern commodities, which harnessed monsoon winds and marked a significant turning point in maritime activity.

Ancient Indian Boats and Shipbuilding

• Limited Knowledge: The field of marine archaeology in India remains at an early stage of development, with primary insights derived from boat-building traditions, artistic depictions, and literary sources.
• Traditional Boat-Building Techniques: Indian boat construction traditions favor stitching planks of wood together instead of using nails. These traditions encompass coir-stitched, jong (Southeast Asian), and Austronesian methods, each employing various stitching techniques.
• Wood Selection: Selection of wood types for shipbuilding depended on their suitability for specific ship components. Mangrove wood excelled in creating sturdy dowels, while teak was preferred for planks, keels, stem, and stern posts.

India’s Role in Maritime Trade

• Trade Lake of the Indian Ocean: By the Common Era, the Indian Ocean had evolved into a thriving trade network, with India positioned at its heart. This network facilitated trade connections between India and Europe via the Middle East and Africa in the west, as well as Southeast Asia, China, and Malaysia in the east.
• Evidence of Scale: Estimates indicate the colossal scale of trade, with customs taxes collected from the Red Sea trade route alone contributing significantly to the Roman exchequer.

Uncovering a Hidden Past

• Ongoing Exploration: Recent excavations have provided substantial insights into India’s maritime history. Nevertheless, experts acknowledge that numerous discoveries await on this journey of exploration.
• Need for Investment: Marine archaeology in India requires increased funding and recognition to unlock its full potential and contribute meaningfully to humanity’s understanding of the past.
• Value of Knowledge: Scientific archaeology’s pursuit of India’s deep maritime past offers the potential for immense benefits to humanity. Engaging with this history challenges conventional narratives and represents a subversive yet essential endeavor.

Conclusion

• The forthcoming voyage of the stitched ship symbolizes India’s dedicated efforts to rejuvenate its maritime heritage, shedding light on the forgotten history of Indian seafarers and their remarkable vessels.
• Through exploration and study, India seeks to restore the rightful place of its maritime legacy in the annals of history.

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Central Idea

• A team from Buddhavanam Theme Park in Hyderabad embarked on a significant visit to Sri Lanka.
• Their destination: the third-century BC Buddhist rock-cut caves at Mathale, situated on the Colombo-Kandy route.

Why such move?

• The team noted that the teachings of Lord Buddha, known as Tripitaka (Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma pitakas), were originally transmitted orally.
• However, it was under the auspices of Sri Lankan king Devanampiya Tissa, a contemporary of King Asoka, that these teachings were written on palm leaves in Sri Lanka.
• This event marked the advent of Buddhist literature in India.

About Tripitaka

• The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon, is a collection of sacred Buddhist scriptures that form the foundational texts of the Theravada Buddhist tradition.
• It is divided into three sections, known as the Tripitaka, which literally means “Three Baskets.”

History and significance

• The Tripitaka was orally transmitted from the time of Gautama Buddha in the 5th century BCE until it was eventually written down in the 1st century BCE.
• It holds immense historical and religious significance as it contains the teachings, discourses, rules, and guidelines given by the Buddha and his prominent disciples.

Composition of the Tripitaka:

(1) Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline):

• Comprises the rules and guidelines for monastic discipline in the Buddhist community.
• Provides detailed instructions on the conduct and behavior expected from monks and nuns.
• Covers various aspects, including ethical guidelines, disciplinary codes, and procedures for resolving disputes.
• Offers insights into the monastic life, the organization of the Sangha (monastic community), and the role of the monastic code in maintaining harmony and ethical conduct.

(2) Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses):

• Contains the discourses and teachings delivered by Buddha and his close disciples.
• Includes a vast collection of discourses covering a wide range of topics, such as ethics, meditation, philosophy, and social issues.
• Consists of individual Suttas (discourses) grouped into different collections or Nikayas, such as the Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (Middle-Length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourses), and Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Discourses).
• Presents the Buddha’s profound teachings on the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, dependent origination, and other core concepts of Buddhism.

(3) Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings):

• Provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of Buddhist philosophy and psychology.
• Explores the nature of mind, consciousness, and reality in intricate detail.
• Presents the teachings in a more technical and analytical manner, offering an advanced understanding of Buddhist concepts.
• Divided into seven books, known as the Abhidhamma books, which delve into topics such as consciousness, mental factors, elements, and the path to liberation.
• Offers a deep exploration of the ultimate nature of existence and the workings of the mind.

Features and Characteristics

• Authenticity and Authority: The Tripitaka is regarded as the most authoritative and authentic collection of Buddhist scriptures in the Theravada tradition.
• Canonical Language: The texts are primarily written in Pali, an ancient Indian language close to the language spoken during the Buddha’s time.
• Extensive Coverage: The Tripitaka covers a wide range of topics, offering comprehensive guidance for practitioners in various aspects of life.
• Preservation of Early Buddhist Teachings: The Tripitaka is believed to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha, providing insights into his wisdom and teachings.

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Central Idea

• A monumental 108-foot-tall statue of Hindu saint Adi Shankaracharya, known as ‘Ekatmata Ki Pratima’ (Statue of Oneness), was recently unveiled in Omkareshwar, Khandwa district, Madhya Pradesh.
• This project is part of the government’s efforts to develop Omkareshwar as a prominent religious and tourism destination.

Adi Shankaracharya: A Brief Overview

• Adi Shankaracharya was a prominent Indian philosopher and theologian, often referred to as Sankara (Jagatguru). He was a staunch advocate of ancient Hinduism.
• His birthplace Kaladi in Ernakulam, Kerala, is poised to be declared a national monument.
• He received guidance from his guru, Govinda Bhagavatpada, under whom he diligently studied texts like ‘Gaudapadiya Karika,’ ‘Brahmasutra,’ Vedas, and Upanishads.
• Shankara propagated the philosophies of ‘Advaita Vedanta’ and ‘Dashanami Sampradaya,’ earning him the title ‘Shankaracharya’ among his disciples.

His Philosophy: Advaita Vedanta

• Non-Dualism: Shankaracharya’s philosophy, known as ‘Advaita Vedanta,’ espouses non-dualism.
• Ultimate Reality: It asserts that the world exists due to the creative energy (Maya) of Brahman, the ultimate, transcendent, and immanent God of the later Vedas.
• Identity of Self: In Advaita Vedanta, the transcendental self of the universe (Atman) and the experiencing self (Jiva) are both identical in truth – both are Brahman. However, the individual self appears different, akin to space inside a container seeming distinct from space as a whole.
• Overcoming Error: Mistakes and ignorance lead to a plurality (Avidya), but understanding Brahman eliminates these errors, resulting in liberation from the cycle of reincarnation and worldly servitude.

Disciples of Adi Shankaracharya

Shankaracharya’s four closest disciples played pivotal roles in propagating his teachings:

1. Padmapada: Known for his deep devotion and poetry.
2. Totakacharya: Devoted to Shankaracharya’s mission and revered for his poetry “Totakashtakam.”
3. Hasta Malaka: A child prodigy who astounded Shankaracharya with his understanding of Advaita philosophy.
4. Sureshwara: Initially a householder, he became a disciple after losing a philosophical debate to Shankaracharya.

Contributions of Adi Shankaracharya

• Shankaracharya introduced the ‘Shanmata’ system, which emphasized worship of the five principal deities and restored the Dashanami structure.
• He composed numerous devotional and meditative hymns and authored key texts on Advaita Vedanta, including commentaries on major scriptures.
• Adi Shankaracharya revitalized Hinduism at a time when it faced challenges from Jainism and Buddhism, promoting unity and re-establishing traditions.
• He established four monastic institutions (Mathas) in different corners of India, unifying the nation and codifying leadership roles:

1. Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetam in Chikmaglur in Karnataka
2. Jyotir Matha in the Garhwal region in Uttarakhand
3. Kalika Matha in Dwarka in Gujarat
4. Govardhana Matha in Puri in Odisha

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Central Idea

• In New Delhi’s Pragati Maidan, a grand 27-foot Nataraja statue, the world’s tallest depiction of Lord Shiva in his dancing form, awaits the arrival of G20 leaders.
• Craftsmen behind the statue trace their lineage 34 generations back to the Cholas.

The Nataraja Masterpiece

• Crafted from an eight-metal alloy (ashtadhatu) by skilled artisans from Swamimalai, Tamil Nadu.
• Weighing approximately 18 tonnes, it was transported across the country on a 36-wheel trailer.

• The statue’s design draws inspiration from three revered Nataraja idols:

• 1. Thillai Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram.
  2. Uma Maheswarar Temple in Konerirajapuram.
  3. Brihadeeswara (Big) Temple in Thanjavur (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).

The Cholas and Nataraja

• All three temples that inspired the Bharat Mandapam Nataraja statue were originally constructed by the Cholas.
• During the 9th-11th centuries AD, the Cholas ruled much of peninsular India and were known for their patronage of art and culture.
• Chola art and architecture flourished during their territorial expansion.

Significance: Shiva as the Lord of Dance

• Lord Shiva’s portrayal as Nataraja evolved from the Vedic deity Rudra.
• Shiva is a complex deity, embodying both destructive and protective aspects.
• Nataraja, the Lord of Dance, symbolizes Shiva’s role as both the destroyer and protector.
• He is known to have invented numerous dances, ranging from calm to fierce and orgiastic.

Iconography of Nataraja

• Nataraja is often depicted within a flaming aureole or halo, representing the circle of the world.
• He has long dreadlocks, signifying the energy of his dance, and four arms.
• In his upper right hand, he holds a damru (hand drum), in the upper left, agni (fire).
• A dwarf-like figure beneath his foot symbolizes illusion.
• Nataraja’s front right hand makes the ‘abhayamudra’ (gesture to allay fear), and he points to his raised feet with his front left hand.
• Despite its complex symbolism, Nataraja typically wears a serene smile, signifying the duality of life and death.

The Lost Wax Method

• The 27-foot Bharat Mandapam Nataraja statue was created using the traditional ‘lost-wax’ casting method, indigenous to the Chola era.
• This method dates back at least 6,000 years.
• It involves creating a wax model, covering it with a special soil paste, heating it to remove the wax, leaving behind a hollow mould, which is then filled with molten metal.
• This technique was mastered by the Cholas and is considered a pinnacle of metallurgical artistry.

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Central Idea

The recent discovery of two sculptures in the Basrur region near Kundapura, Udupi (Karnataka), has brought to light the existence of the ancient Mylara cult in the coastal area.

What is the news?

• A remarkable sculpture, discovered in a well at Basrur, showcases a royal hero seated on a horse, wielding a sword and a bowl in his right and left hands, respectively.
• Notably, this sculpture lacks the depiction of Mylaladevi on the horse’s back.

About Mylara Cult

• Mylara, a revered folk deity, is believed to be a divine incarnation of Lord Shiva.
• Known by various names such as Mailara, Khandoba, Khanderao, and Khandnatha, this deity holds a diverse range of titles that highlight its multifaceted nature.
• Its origins can be traced back to the 12th century Shaivite tradition, associated with the revered Lingayat saint and philosopher Siddharama, aka. Siddharameshwara or Siddhalinga.
• The influence of the Mylara cult spans across the southern regions of India, encompassing Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Historical Significance

• Basrur was a thriving trading hub during the Medieval period, bustling with trading guilds like Uhayadesi and Nanadesi.
• These guilds actively participated in trade, making Basrur a pivotal center for various cults and cultural exchange.
• The Mylara cult, known for its prominence in the Deccan region, flourished in Basrur as well.

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Central Idea

• Recent archaeological excavations in Tirunaya near Nagaparamba (Kerala) have brought to light a collection of hemispherical laterite stones known as hat stones or Thoppikkallu in Malayalam.

Nagaparamba Megalithic Treasure

• Thoppikkallu: Hat stones, referred to as Thoppikkallu in Malayalam, served as lids for burial urns during the megalithic era, offering a unique glimpse into burial practices.
• Cultural Insights: The discoveries may provide valuable insights into the life and culture of the ancient inhabitants of the area, dating back more than 2,000 years.

Unraveling the Mystery of Megaliths

• Megalithic Structures: Megaliths were constructed as either burial sites or commemorative memorials, creating a distinctive landscape of archaeological significance.
• Burial Remains: Examples of burial megaliths include dolmenoid cists, cairn circles, and capstones, each with its unique design and purpose.
• Non-Sepulchral Megaliths: Non-burial megaliths, such as menhirs, hold a different purpose and significance.
• Historical Context: The majority of Indian megaliths are attributed to the Iron Age, spanning from 1500 BC to 500 BC.
• Regional Concentration: These intriguing structures are concentrated in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

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Central Idea

• Delhi’s Purana Qila, also known as the Old Fort, is a historic site with a rich and diverse past.
• Recent excavations have shed light on its continuous history since the pre-Mauryan era.

About Purana Qila

• The origins of Purana Qila date back to antiquity, with the exact foundation period unknown.
• It was later rebuilt by Sher Shah Suri and Mughal emperor Humayun.
• The fort holds immense cultural and historical importance, and many believe it to be the site of Indraprastha mentioned in the Mahabharata.
• The fort, believed to be the location of the ancient city of Indraprastha, showcases architectural remnants from various periods, including the Mughal and Rajput eras.

Architectural marvels at Purana Qila

• Purana Qila’s architectural features include walls that rise to a height of 18 meters, spanning approximately 1.5 kilometers.
• It boasts three arched gateways, including the Bara Darwaza, the south gate (Humayun Gate), and the Talaqi Gate.
• The fort’s Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque, built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541, showcases pre-Mughal architecture with its pointed arches and elegant prayer niches.
• The Sher Mandal, a double-storeyed octagonal tower, served as Humayun’s private observatory and library.
• It features decorative plaster-work and remnants of stone shelving for books.

Recent excavation discoveries

• Excavations have uncovered significant artifacts, including shards of Painted Gray Ware pottery dating from 1200 BC to 600 BC, indicating the pre-Mauryan period.
• Other discoveries include a 900-year-old Vaikuntha Vishnu from the Rajput period, a terracotta plaque of Goddess Gaja Lakshmi from the Gupta period, and a 2,500-year-old terracotta ring well from the Mauryan period.
• Numerous beads, seals, copper coins, and a bone needle have also been found, highlighting the site’s role as a center for trade activities.

Cultural chronology and preservation

• The ongoing excavation aims to establish a complete chronology of the site, spanning different historical periods from the Kushan to the Mughal era.
• The remains of Purana Qila will be preserved, conserved, and transformed into an open-air museum to showcase the rich historical legacy of Delhi.
• The excavated artifacts will also be displayed to delegates attending the G-20 summit, further promoting the cultural heritage of the site.

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Central Idea

• Prime Minister is set to install the ‘Sengol,’ a historical sceptre from Tamil Nadu, in the new Parliament building, which will be inaugurated on May 28, 2023.

What is Sengol?

• Sengol is a historical sceptre that holds significant cultural and historical value in Tamil Nadu.
• Derived from the Tamil word “Semmai,” meaning “Righteousness,” Sengol represents a symbol of justice and good governance.
• In the Chola era, the transfer of power from one king to another was sanctified with the sceptre being handed over as a symbol of authority and the responsibility to rule with fairness and justice.
• It gained prominence during the transfer of power from the British to the Indian people at the time of India’s independence.

History: Traditional Chola Practice and Symbolism

• Historical Practice: The presentation of the Sengol aligns with a traditional Chola practice where Samayacharyas (spiritual leaders) led the coronation of kings, sanctifying the transfer of power and symbolically recognizing the ruler.
• Symbol of Justice and Good Governance: The Sengol, a symbol of justice and good governance, holds cultural significance as recorded in ancient Tamil texts like Silapathikaram and Manimekalai.

Sengol’s recent context and creation

• Lord Mountbatten’s Question: Prior to Independence, Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, asked Nehru about the ceremony that should symbolize the transfer of power.
• Inspiration from Chola Dynasty: Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of India, suggested a ceremony from the Chola dynasty, where the transfer of power was sanctified and blessed by high priests.
• Manufacturing the Sengol: Rajagopalachari approached Thiruvaduthurai Atheenam, a renowned Shaivite mutt in Tamil Nadu’s Tanjore district, which commissioned the creation of the Sengol from Chennai-based jewellers, “Vummidi Bangaru Chetty.”
• Craftsmanship: Vummidi Ethirajulu and Vummidi Sudhakar skillfully crafted the five-foot-long Sengol, featuring a symbolic ‘Nandi’ bull representing justice.

Significance of the ‘Sengol’

• Symbolic importance: Derived from the Tamil word “Semmai,” meaning “Righteousness,” the ‘Sengol’ represents a significant historical symbol of Independence.
• Marks Transfer of Power: On August 14, 1947, Pandit Nehru, the first PM, received the ‘Sengol’ from the Adhinam of Tamil Nadu, marking the shift of power from the British to the Indian people.

The Handover Ceremony

• Arrival of the Sengol: Three individuals, including the deputy high priest of the Adheenam, a Nadaswaram player, and an Oduvar (singer), brought the newly made Sengol from Tamil Nadu.
• The Ceremony: On August 14, 1947, the Sengol was handed over to Lord Mountbatten during a procession, and later taken to Jawaharlal Nehru’s house, where it was officially presented to him.
• Sacred Song and Attendees: A special song composed by the 7th-century Tamil saint Tirugnana Sambandar, as specified by the high priest, accompanied the ceremony. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, India’s first president, and other dignitaries were present during the event.

Ceremonial Procession and Tamil Traditions

• Grand Procession: The Sengol will be ceremoniously transported to the House in a grand procession.
• Musical Ensemble: Traditional Nadaswaram musicians, playing Tamil Nadu’s iconic instrument, will lead the procession, and PM is expected to walk alongside them, embracing Tamil culture.
• Adheenams and Sanctification: Adheenams, priests from Shaivite mutts in Tamil Nadu, will be present in the Lok Sabha’s Well. They will sanctify the Sengol with holy water after Prime Minister Modi greets them, honoring Tamil traditions.
• Oduvars and Sacred Recitation: Tamil temple singers known as Oduvars will recite the “Kolaru Padhigam” lyrically, while the Nadaswaram musicians enchant with their soulful music.

Conclusion

• The Sengol continues to be revered as a representation of India’s independence and serves as a tangible reminder of the country’s rich cultural heritage and the values it upholds.
• Its installation in the new Parliament building further emphasizes its importance and aims to educate and inspire people about this historical event and the principles it embodies.

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Central idea: The article talks about the discovery of new information on the celebrated ancient Sanskrit poetess Shilabhattarika through the decoding of copper plates by the Pune-based Bhandarkar Institute.

Who was Shilabhattarika?

• Shilabhattarika was a 9th-century Sanskrit poet from India.
• She lived near the Narmada River and the Vindhya mountains.
• Her poetic skills were praised by medieval Sanskrit literary critics.
• It is speculated that she may be the same as Shilamahadevi, the queen of 8th-century Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruv.
• According to recent research, she was the daughter of Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II.

Her literary works

• Shilabhattarika is known to have written at least 46 poems on various topics, such as love, morality, politics, nature, beauty, the seasons, insects, anger, indignation, codes of conduct, and the characteristic features of various kinds of heroines.
• Shilabhattarika is considered a leading figure of the Panchali literary style, which maintains “a balance between words and meaning”.
• According to Rajashekhara, the Panchali style can be traced to the works of Shilabhattarika, and possibly in some of the works of the 7th-century poet Bana.
• Sharangadhara-paddhati, a 14th-century anthology, praises her and three other female poets for their great poetic genius and erudition.
• One of the most iconic songs of the noted Marathi poetess Shanta Shelke, “toch chandrama nabhat” (it is the same moon in the sky), draws inspiration from the verses of Shilabhattarika.

Key findings of the recent research

• The research analyzed a copperplate charter consisting of 5 copper plates dating back to the reign of Badami Chalukyan ruler Vijayaditya (696-733 CE).
• The plates were held together by a copper ring that bore the varaha (boar) seal, which is the trademark of the Badami Chalukyas.
• The Sanskrit text inscribed in late-Brahmi script contained a total of 65 lines.
• The charter revealed that King Vijayaditya Chalukya had donated the village of Chigateri to a scholar named Vishnu Sharma, based on the recommendation of Mahendravarma, Shilabhattarika’s son.
• Shilabhattarika’s husband, Dadiga, was deputed as the governor of Kogali, while his elder brother Polavira succeeded their father Mokkara as the ruler of the Western Ganga dynasty, which acted as subordinates to the Chalukyas of Badami and fought against the Pallavas of Kanchi.
• The plates also mentioned the names of Shilabhattarika’s father-in-law, Mokkara (or Mushkara), and his father, Durvinita, who was a proficient composer and had patronized Bharavi, the author of the classical epic Kiratarjuniya.

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The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is set to initiate conservation works at Zafar Mahal in south Delhi’s Mehrauli.

Zafar Mahal

• Zafar Mahal, located in Mehrauli village, South Delhi, India, is considered the last monumental structure built during the fading years of the Mughal era.
• The palace was built in the 18th and 19th centuries, with a forlorn history due to the deportation of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, by the British.
• The monument is now in a neglected and ruined state and locals often play cricket and gamble inside the protected monument.

History

• The Mughal dynasty ended after 332 years when the last Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1837–1857) was deported to Rangoon, Burma, now Myanmar from the imperial city of Delhi.
• The palace had graves in the precincts of Zafar Mahal built within a marble screen enclosure by Jahandar Shah for his father Bahadur Shah I and others who followed, and is a minor reflection of the history of the place.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar II, who wished to be buried in the precincts of the palace, was buried in Rangoon.
• The palace used to be visited by Bahadur Shah Zafar II for hunting during the monsoon season, and he was honoured here during the Phool Walon Ki Sair festival held in February/March.

Key Structures

• Zafar Mahal consists of the Mahal or the palace, built in the 18th century, and the entrance gate, reconstructed in the 19th century.
• The palace is a three-storied structure in red sandstone embellished with marble, and the gate is imposing with an 11.75 feet opening at the entrance.
• A masjid called the Moti Masjid, built by Bahadur Shah I, was also located within the palace precincts.
• The palace now sits in a dilapidated condition and its restoration is limited by the inadequate documents to deduce the original construction details.

Demolished or Illegally Occupied Structures

• Zafar Mahal used to be a huge palace consisting of many other structures that are no longer present or occupied by local residents.
• These structures include the Diwan-e-Khaas of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the house of Mirza Babur, the Baoli of Aurangzeb, the house of Mirza Nili, the Thana of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the house of Mirza Salim, and the Khwas Pura.

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The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has urged the government to conserve the historically significant structures, including the 600-year-old ‘Vilakkumadom’, an exquisite granite structure, at the Sree Mahavishnu Temple at Thirunelly in Wayanad district.

About Thirunelly Temple

• The temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and is also known as Sahyamala Kshetram.
• It is also referred to as the ‘Kashi of the South’ and is considered as an important pilgrimage center for Hindus.
• It is located at the confluence of three rivers – Papanasini, the holy river, which is believed to have the power to wash away sins, Kudamurutti, and Koothappuzha.
• The temple has a unique circular structure made of granite stones, which is believed to have been constructed by Lord Brahma himself.
• It has beautiful architecture and features intricate carvings, mural paintings, and sculptures.
• The temple celebrates several festivals throughout the year, including Vishu, Navaratri, and Thirunelli festival.

Renovation plan

• The renovation works include the reconstruction of the chuttambalam or the structure around the sanctum sanctorum, except for the balikkalpura structure on the front side.
• The renovation work also includes the completion of the vilakkumadam, an exquisite granite structure that has a history dating back to the 15th century AD.
• The renovation works also include the renovation of the panchatheertham pond and the pathway to the papanasini bath ghat where devotees perform the bali ritual.

Why in news?

• The temple structure has a history dating back to the 15th century AD, and stories related to the architecture and style of the temple are associated with it.
• In guise of renovation, there is a concern over the loss of valuable precincts and the destruction of heritage.
• The incomplete structure that stood as testimony to a rich cultural heritage has been remodelled in an insensitive way.

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Assam’s pyramid-like structures known as moidams or maidams have met all the technical requirements of UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre.

Charaideo Maidams

• The Charaideo maidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
• The Ahoms preferred to place the departed family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
• The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
• The Charaideo Maidams enshrine the mortal remains of the members of the Ahom royalty, who used to be buried with their paraphernalia.
• After the 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
• Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.

Architecture details

• Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
• It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
• At the top of the mound a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
• An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.

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The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) stumbled upon a 1,300-year-old stupa right in the middle of a Khondalite mining site in Odisha’s Jajpur district.

About the Stupa

• The stupa could be 4.5-meter tall and initial assessment showed it may belong to the 7^th or 8^th
• It was found at Parabhadi which is situated near Lalitagiri, a major Buddhist complex, having a large number of stupas and monasteries.
• The newly discovered stupa was possibly disfigured in an earlier period.

Back2Basics: Lalitagiri Buddhist Complex

• Lalitagiri is a major Buddhist complex in the state of Odisha.
• The complex is home to stupas, ‘esoteric’ Buddha images, and monasteries (viharas), which is the oldest site in the region.
• Significant finds at this complex include Buddha’s relics. Tantric Buddhism was practiced at this site.
• Together with the Ratnagiri and Udayagiri sites a short distance away, Lalitagiri is part of the “Diamond Triangle”.
• It used to be thought that one or all of these were the large Pushpagiri Vihara known from ancient records, but this has now convincingly located at a different site.

Stupa Architecture

In the most basic sense, as an architectural representation of a sacred burial site, a stupa — no matter where it is located in the world or when it was built — has three fundamental features.

• A hemispherical mound (anda) The anda’s domed shape (green highlights) recalls a mound of dirt that was used to cover the Buddha’s remains. As you might expect, it has a solid core and cannot be entered. Consistent with their symbolic associations, the earliest stupas contained actual relics of the Buddha; the relic chamber, buried deep inside the anda, is called the tabena. Over time, this hemispherical mound has taken on an even grander symbolic association: the mountain home of the gods at the center of the universe.
• A square railing (harmika) The harmika (red highlights) is inspired by a square railing or fence that surrounded the mound of dirt, marking it as a sacred burial site.
• A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (chattra) The chattra, in turn, was derived from umbrellas that were placed over the mound to protect it from the elements (purple highlights). Just as the anda’s symbolic value expanded over time, the central pillar that holds the umbrellas has come to represent the pivot of the universe, the axis along which the divine descends from heaven and becomes accessible to humanity. And the three circular umbrella-like disks represent the three Jewels, or Triantha, of Buddhism, which are the keys to a true understanding of the faith: (a) Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha (monastic community).

Around these three core building blocks were added secondary features.

• Enclosure wall with decorated gateways (toranas) at the cardinal directions The wall — with its trademark three horizontal stone bars (in the top image) — surrounds the entire structure. The wall is marked in light blue highlights and the toranas in yellow.
• A circular terrace (medhi) The terrace — surrounded by a similar three-bar railing — supports the anda and raises it off the ground (black highlights); it likely served as a platform for ritual circumambulation.

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A Dickinsonia fossil found at Bhimbetka, previously believed to be one of the world’s earliest animals, and has been identified as a decayed beehive.

About Bhimbetka

• The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the prehistoric Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period.
• It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times.
• It is located in the Raisen District in Madhya Pradesh about 45 kilometres (28 mi) south-east of Bhopal.
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that consists of seven hills and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 km (6.2 mi).
• At least some of the shelters were inhabited more than 100,000 years ago.
• Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings and the earliest are about 10,000 years old (c. 8,000 BCE), corresponding to the Indian Mesolithic.
• These cave paintings show themes such as animals, early evidence of dance and hunting.
• The Bhimbetka rock shelters were found by V S Wakankar 64 years ago. Since then, thousands of researchers have visited the site, but this rare fossil went undetected.

What is Dickinsonia?

• Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, Russia and Ukraine.
• The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval.
• Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi or even an “extinct kingdom”.
• The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.

Cambrian Explosion and Dickinsonia

• The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ is the term given to the period of time in history when complex animals and other macroscopic organisms such as molluscs, worms, arthropods and sponges began to dominate the fossil record.
• Researchers from Australian found the Dickinsonia fossil since its tissue contained molecules of cholesterol a type of fat that is the hallmark of animal life.

Try this PYQ:

Q. Which one of the following statements is correct?

(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River

(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal River

(c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada River

(d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari River

 

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The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to form a special committee to trace and certify 24 protected monuments that have gone “missing”.

Why in news?

• PMO has in a report last month said there was an urgent need to “rationalise” the list of monuments of national importance.

Sites in news

• Barakhamba Cemetery temple ruins, Mirzapur (UP) dating to 1000 AD
• Kos Minars – one at Faridabad’s Mujesar and
• Inchla Wali Gumti at Mubarakpur Kotla in the capital

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) 

• Founded by Alexander Cunningham, who is also revered as the “Father of Indian Archaeology”
• He was the protege of James Prinsep.
• It was Lord Canning who helped pass a statute for ASI’s establishment in 1861.
• Post-Independence, it is a Statutory body that now works under Ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains act (AMASR Act), 1958.
• It works as an attached Office of the Ministry of Culture.
• ASI has 3678 protected monuments and Archaeology sites of National Importance + 29 cultural under the World Heritage List by UNESCO.

Initiatives by ASI

1. Museums

• ASI’s museums are customarily located right next to the sites that their inventories are associated with “so that they may be studied amid their natural surroundings and not lose focus by being transported”.
• A dedicated Museums Branch maintains a total of 44 museums spread across the country.

2. Publications by ASI

• Epigraphia Indica
• Ancient India
• Indian Archaeology: A Review (Annually)

3. Library

• Central Archaeological Library in the National Archives building in Janpath, New Delhi

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Recent excavations at Bharatpur in West Bengal’s Paschim Bardhaman district have revealed the presence of a Buddhist monastery.

Bharatpur Buddhist Monastery Complex

• The Kolkata Circle of the Archeological Survey of India (ASI) started excavating the site in the second week of January and a structural complex of a monastery has now been partially exposed.
• The site was initially excavated almost fifty years ago between 1972 and 1975 when archeologists from ASI found a Buddhist stupa at the site.

Uniqueness of this site

• This place hosts a large stupa along with a monastery complex and black and red ware pottery from the Chalcolithic or Copper Age.
• In other sites across West Bengal, such as Karnasubarna in Murshidabad, Moghalamari in Paschim Medinipur and Jagjivanpur in Malda, archeologists have found only smaller votive stupas.
• Further excavation is likely to shed more light to understand the earliest occupation of the site and its continuity till the establishment of a Buddhist monastery.

Key findings

• In the 1970s when the site was excavated along with the stupa, five beautiful seated sculptures of the Buddha in Bhumisparsha Mudra -with all five fingers of the right hand extended to touch the ground — were found.
• These miniature sculptures, each about 30 cm in height, were most likely used for worship in the monastery.

Back2Basics: Mudras of Buddha

(1) Dharmachakra Mudra

• It is also called as the gesture of ‘Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma’ that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha’s life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment.
• It is performed with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left facing inward, covering the right facing outward.

(2) Dhyan Mudra

• It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga Mudra.
• It is performed with the help of two hands, which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hand resting on each other.)
• This is the characteristic gesture of Buddha Shakyamuni, Dhyani Buddha Amitabh and the Medicine Buddha.

(3) Bhumisparsa Mudra

• This gesture is also known as ‘touching the Earth’, which represents the moment of the Buddha’s awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment.
• It is performed with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.

(4) Varada Mudra

• This mudra represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity.
• It is performed with the help of both the hands in which palm of right hand is facing forward and fingers extended and left hand palm placed near centre with extended fingers.

(5) Karana Mudra

• It signifies the warding off of evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger, and folding the other fingers.
• It helps in reducing sickness or negative thoughts.

(6) Vajra Mudra

• This gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolises the five elements—air, water, fire, earth, and metal.
• It is performed with the help of right fist and left forefinger, which is placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the left forefinger.

(7) Vitarka Mudra

• It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha.
• It is performed by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like the Abhaya Mudra and Varada Mudra but in this mudra the thumbs touch the index fingers.

(8) Abhaya Mudra

• It is a gesture of fearlessness or blessing that represents the protection, peace, benevolence, and dispelling of fear.
• It is performed with the help of right hand by raising to shoulder height with bent arm, and the face of palm will be facing outward with fingers upright whereas the left hand hanging down while standing.

(9) Uttarabodhi Mudra

• This denotes the supreme enlightenment through connecting oneself with divine universal energy.
• It is performed with the help of both the hands, which are placed at the heart with the index fingers touching and pointing upwards and the remaining fingers intertwined.

(10) Anjali Mudra

• It is also called Namaskara Mudra or Hridayanjali Mudra that represents the gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration.
• It is performed by pressing the palms of the hands together in which the hands are held at the heart chakra with thumbs resting lightly against the sternum.

Answer this PYQ from CSP 2014 in the comment box:

Q.Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with a hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes-

a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation

b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara

c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth and thus this life is transitory

d) Both the statements ‘a’ and ‘b’ are correct in this context

 

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