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  • Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.

    The Constitution envisages substantive equality to correct historical injustices faced by vulnerable groups. However, despite being the 4th largest economy, India’s ranking in HDI, 2025 was 130th out of 193 countries.

    Policies for equity and social justice

    Constitutional provisions – Articles 14, 15(4), 15(5), 16(4), 17, 46

    Reservations in education, public employment, and political representation

    Protective legislation – SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act

    Targeted welfare schemes

    Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

    MGNREGA

    Ayushman Bharat

    PM-JANMAN (for PVTGs)

    SHRESHTA (high-quality residential education for SCs).

    Institutional mechanisms – National Commissions for SCs, STs, OBCs

    UGC Equity Regulations 2026, which mandate anti-discrimination cells in all universities.

    Reasons behind underprivileged sections not getting benefits of affirmative action

    Political factors

    Politicization of affirmative action policies hinders adaptability to changing needs. Eg- high income limit for creamy layer

    Proxy representation – Eg- Sarpanch Pati phenomenon in panchayats

    Short termism and political populism rather than focusing on “empowerment.” Eg- loan waivers, ladli behna etc reduce public investment in health, education etc

    Social factors

    Social Stratification- Caste-based discrimination prevents upward mobility for the marginalized. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Elite Capture within Beneficiary Groups – Eg- Advanced sections among SCs dominating reserved seats (“class within caste”)

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    Low Social Capital and Networks – Lack of mentoring and peer support for marginalised students leading to social isolation. Eg- Rohith Vemula

    Glass ceiling effect for women – discrimination and low representation at higher positions

    Economic factors

    Shrinking Public Sector – Eg- Over 90% workforce outside formal government employment where reservation is absent

    Intergenerational Poverty limits health, education outcomes and employment productivity. Eg- stunting and wasting rates among ST children is ~10-15% higher than the national average.

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Administrative factors

    Leakages and corruption –

    Inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS (Shanta Kumar committee)

    Ghost beneficiaries in Ayushman Bharat identified by CAG

    Lack of last mile reach due to security issues like naxalism, insurgency etc.

    Poor Social Infrastructure

    Healthcare – low public spending (2.1% of GDP) and high out of pocket expenditure (40%)

    Education – low public investment (2.9% of GDP) lead to “quality crisis” and high dropout rates at secondary and higher levels

    Skill Gap – only about 51.25% of youth are employable.

    Way Forward

    Outcome-Oriented Design – Eg- Aspirational district program

    Better targeting

    Subcategorization within SCs (Davinder Singh case)

    Multi-dimensional Deprivation Index (MDI) for EWS and OBC categories

    Capability Approach- increase expenditure on Health (2.5% of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Women Empowerment by adopting best practices like Kerala’s Kudumbshree Model

    Focus on Gender-Caste Intersectionality to address the “double burden” of women from underprivileged sections.

    There is need for whole of government and life-cycle approach to realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047

  • What are aurora australis and aurora borealis? How are these triggered?

    An aurora is a natural luminous phenomenon seen in high-latitude skies, caused by the interaction between charged particles from the Sun and Earth’s upper atmosphere, producing dynamic light displays in various colors.

    Aurora Australis (Southern Lights)

    Occurs in the Southern Hemisphere – Visible near the Antarctic Circle.

    Observed in countries like – Antarctica, Tasmania (Australia), New Zealand, and the southern tip of Argentina.

    Forms luminous arcs and curtains – Green, red, purple colors dominate.

    Best viewed during the Southern Hemisphere’s winter (May to September) due to the long hours of darkness.

    Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights)

    Occurs in the Northern Hemisphere – Visible near the Arctic Circle.

    Observed in countries like – Norway, Sweden, Finland, Canada, Alaska.

    Displays dynamic wave-like patterns – Curtains, spirals, and arcs.

    March and September equinoxes are peak viewing times due to the Russell-McPherron effect, which allows solar energy to enter the atmosphere more easily.

    Triggers of Auroras

    Solar Activity

    The Sun’s corona constantly releases a stream of protons and electrons at speeds up to 900 km/s.

    These particles hit the Magnetosphere (Earth’s magnetic shield), which deflects most of them.

    Magnetic lines guide particles poleward as Earth’s magnetic field lines are weakest and more vertical at the North and South Poles.

    Acceleration (Birkeland Currents)- Particles gain speed as they spiral down the field lines toward the Ionosphere.

    Atmospheric Collision- Charged particles collide with gas atoms (Oxygen and Nitrogen) in the Thermosphere (approx. 100km-400km up).

    The collision transfers energy to the gas atoms, moving their electrons to a higher-energy state.

    These atoms release that energy as a photon (a packet of light).

    Color Differentiation- Oxygen produces green and red, Nitrogen produces blue or purple light.

    They illustrate the protective role of the magnetosphere while producing one of the most visually stunning atmospheric phenomena.

  • In dealing with socio-economic issues of development, what kind of collaboration between government, NGO’s and private sector would be most productive?

    Multi-dimensional nature of developmental issues, require a collaborative governance, where the government, NGO, and the private sector work in synergy.

    Socio-economic issues of development

    Nearly 11% of the population is still living in multidimensional poverty.

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Social Stratification- Caste-based discrimination prevents upward mobility for the marginalized. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Poor Social Infrastructure

    Healthcare – low public spending (2.1% of GDP) and high out of pocket expenditure (40%)

    Education – low public investment (2.9% of GDP) lead to “quality crisis” and high dropout rates at secondary and higher levels

    Skill Gap – only about 51.25% of youth are employable.

    Gender Disparities

    Low FLFPR – 41% in India vs 71% in China

    Glass ceiling effect – discrimination and low representation at higher positions

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    “Climate Inequality” – women and poor are most vulnerable to climatic shocks like heatwaves or disasters. Eg- “climate induced migration” after floods in Assam

    Urbanization issues – Eg- 17% population living in slums

    Collaboration between government, NGO and private sector

    Public-Private-Community Partnerships (PPCP) – Eg- collaboration between GoI, Akshay patra foundation and infosys foundation in implementing Mid-day meal scheme

    Complementary role

    Policy Leadership by Government

    NGOs as Last-Mile Implementers

    Private Sector for Scale and Innovation

    CSR-Driven Development Partnerships – Eg- tata trust funding support for PRATHAM NGO for education

    Data and Technology Collaboration – Tech firms building dashboards, NGOs collecting field-level data, government monitoring outcomes. Eg- in aspirational districts program

    Capacity Building – NGOs and private sector training frontline workers in healthcare.

    Technology Transfer for Agriculture- Agri-tech firms develop precision tools, the government subsidizes them, while NGOs train farmers in “Climate-Smart Agriculture”.

    Saturation-Based urban Infrastructure- The government provides land, the private sector builds , while NGOs handle the “soft infrastructure” like health and education.

    NGO’s helping the government in ensuring last mile service delivery. Eg- acting as “Arogya Mitras” under Ayushman Bharat scheme

    Strengthening this triangular alliance can ensure inclusive, resilient, and sustainable growth.

  • Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns? Discuss in the light of conditions in developing countries.

    According to the International Organization for Migration, migration is the movement of people away from their usual place of residence. As per PLFS data, the total migration rate in India was around 30 %.

    Factors Behind Greater Migration to Larger Cities

    Push Factors

    Agrarian Distress – Low productivity, land fragmentation, and climate stress push people out. Eg- Migration from drought-prone regions of Bundelkhand and Vidarbha.

    Lack of Non-Farm Employment – Rural areas offer limited livelihood diversification leading to distress migration.

    Underemployment and Disguised Unemployment in agriculture

    Poor Social Infrastructure – Inadequate education and healthcare facilities in rural areas push youth to cities like Pune or Cape Town in South Africa

    Social Constraints – Caste, gender, and kinship-based restrictions. Eg- Dalits migrating to escape rural social control.

    Pull Factors

    Concentration of Employment Opportunities – Eg- Construction, services, IT, gig economy in Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru.

    Higher Wage Potential – Urban wages significantly higher than rural wages.

    Large Informal Sector Absorptive Capacity – Eg- Street vending, domestic work, delivery services.

    Better Education and Skill Institutions – Presence of universities and coaching hubs.

    Migrant Networks lead to chain migration to urban slums and peri-urban areas. Eg- Dharavi or Govandi areas in Mumbai, Kerala migrant network in Dubai

    The perception of the city as a land of “dreams” and social freedom attracts the youth. Eg- Mumbai or New York

    Smaller Towns Attract Lower Migration due to

    Weak Industrial Base – Limited manufacturing and service-sector growth.

    Poor Quality of higher education and tertiary healthcare

    Inadequate Urban Infrastructure – Poor housing, transport, and sanitation.

    Limited social mobility compared to metros.

    Policy and Investment Neglect – Concentration of public and private investment in a few metropolitan regions.

    Regional industrialisation, improving urban governance, and “Rurbanization”, is essential to make migration balanced, inclusive, and opportunity-driven rather than distress-led.

  • Globalization has increased urban migration by skilled, young, unmarried women from various classes. How has this trend impacted upon their personal freedom and relationship with family?

    Globalization has expanded education, service-sector employment, and transnational labor markets, leading to rising urban migration of women across classes.

    Positive impact of urban migration

    On personal freedom

    Economic autonomy – Regular wages enhance bargaining power over life choices. Eg- A BPO employee independently financing postgraduate studies.

    Career choice – Exposure to diversified jobs weakens caste-gender occupational lock-ins.

    Education opportunities. Eg- 43% STEM graduates are women

    Lifestyle agency – Control over dress, leisure, and daily routines expands self-expression. Eg- late shifts, mixed-gender workplaces.

    Delay in marriage – Eg- avg marriage age for educated urban women is 23 compared to 17.5 for uneducated women (NFHS-5).

    Sexual and relational choice – Eg- Dating apps facilitating consent-based relationships.

    Identity formation – Interaction with diverse, global peers fosters a sense of self-identity and feminist consciousness. Eg- participation in #Metoo Movement

    On relationship with family

    Status uplift – Family prestige rises with urban employment. Eg- “IT daughter” enhancing matrimonial standing.

    Reduced patriarchal control – Eg- Fewer restrictions on mobility and friendships.

    Increased Decision-Making Power- Eg- A daughter deciding the purchase of a family asset or funding a sibling’s education.

    Migration allows daughters to become the primary caregivers for aging parents, challenging the “son-centric” dependency norm.

    Inspirational Role Model- encourage younger female relatives to pursue higher education.

    Intergenerational learning – New ideas on health, finance, and law flow back home. Eg- Teaching parents digital banking.

    Negative impact of urban migration

    On personal freedom

    Double burden – anxiety regarding urban safety and workplace harassment. Eg- Nirbhaya case

    Moral policing – Surveillance shifts from family to landlords/employers.

    Lack of a familial support system can lead to severe loneliness and mental health struggles. Eg- rising suicide rates among young women

    Cyber-Harassment- Eg- Professional women facing “doxing” or harassment on social media platforms.

    Commoditization of Identity- Pressure to conform to “global urban” beauty and fashion standards. Eg- Excessive spending on cosmetics and branded goods to “fit in” at the corporate level.

    On relationship with family

    Emotional distance – Eg- Festivals spent away from home.

    Value Clashes- Divergence in lifestyle creates frequent inter-generational conflict. Eg- Resistance to inter-caste partnerships.

    Marriage anxieties – Fear of “urban influence” triggers pressure. Eg- Early matchmaking attempts.

    Burnout from Expectations- pressure to be a “perfect professional” in the city and a “traditional daughter” at home leads to high stress.

    As argued by Saskia Sassen, global cities generate opportunities alongside precarity. Policy supports like safe housing, urban transport security, labor protections, and family-friendly work norms are essential for realising “Nari Shakti”

  • How far is it correct to say that the First World War was fought essentially for the preservation of balance of power?

    While the preservation of the balance of power was a significant factor for the First World War (1914-1918), the war’s causes were complex and multi-dimensional.

    Arguments Supporting Balance of Power as the Cause

    Alliance System

    Europe was divided into two rival alliance blocs – Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain).

    These alliances were designed to maintain equilibrium, but ultimately drew all major powers into a local conflict.

    German Challenge to British Hegemony

    Germany’s rapid industrialisation and naval expansion (Tirpitz Plan) directly challenged British naval supremacy.

    The Anglo-German naval race (Dreadnought competition) was a classic balance of power struggle.

    British Shift from Splendid Isolation – Britain abandoned isolation to prevent German continental dominance. Eg- Entente Cordiale (1904).

    Franco-Russian Alliance – France allied Russia to strategically contain rising German influence.

    Austrian-Russian Rivalry in the Balkans

    Both powers sought to fill the vacuum left by the declining Ottoman Empire.

    Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia (1908) and Russia’s Pan-Slavist support for Serbia threatened the balance in Southeast Europe.

    French Revanchism – France sought to recover Alsace-Lorraine lost to Germany in 1871 and restore European balance by containing German power.

    Arguments Against – Other Significant Causes

    Imperialism and Colonial Rivalries – Competition for colonies in Africa and Asia created tensions. Eg- Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911) between France and Germany.

    Nationalism

    Pan-Slavism, Pan-Germanism, and irredentist movements created explosive pressures.

    Eg- Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist triggered the war

    Militarism

    Arms race and glorification of military power created a culture of war readiness.

    Schlieffen Plan (Germany) and Plan XVII (France) assumed war was inevitable and planned for quick victory.

    Economic Rivalries – Competition for markets, raw materials, and trade routes between industrial powers. Eg- Berlin-Baghdad Railway threatened British interests in the Middle East.

    Failure of Diplomacy – Absence of effective international mechanisms for conflict resolution (no UN or League of Nations yet).

    Secret Diplomacy – Confidential treaties created mistrust and rigid alliance commitments across Europe.

    Press and Propaganda – Nationalist media inflamed public opinion and war hysteria.

    The First World War demonstrated that the balance of power system, without mechanisms for peaceful resolution of disputes, is inherently unstable – a lesson that led to the creation of the League of Nations and later the United Nations.

    Geography

    Climatology

  • Intercaste marriages between castes which have socio-economic parity have increased, to some extent, but this is less true of interreligious marriages. Discuss.

    Marriage in India is a key social institution reflecting patterns of social change and continuity. The changing pattern indicates transition from ritual-based status to socio-economic status as the primary determinant of social acceptance.

    Increase in intercaste marriages

    Decline of Ritual Hierarchy – Purity-pollution norms have weakened among educated and urban groups.

    Class-Caste Convergence – Urban middle class families prioritize “Status Consistency” over traditional ritual ranks. (André Béteille)

    “Individualization of Marriage,” where the couple’s mutual compatibility outweighs the community’s ritual norms. Eg- rise in “love marriages”

    Cultural assimilation and “sanskritization” lead to similar custom, traditions and diets among different casts

    Urbanisation and Migration promote anonymity and social mixing.

    Education and Exposure – Higher education fosters rational attitudes and inter-group interaction.

    Weakening of Caste Panchayats – Eg- declining power of Khap Panchayats in peri-urban areas

    Legal Support and Protection – Eg- Lata Singh v. State of UP (2006) protecting inter-caste couples.

    However, interreligious marriages still face challenges due to

    Sociologist T.K. Oommen argued that religious boundaries are “Thick Identities” compared to the “Thin Identity” of modern urban caste. Eg- differences in dietary habits and household rituals

    Fear of Social Ostracization – social penalty for an inter-religious marriage is more severe than in inter-caste cases. Eg- “Excommunication” (Hukka-Paani Bandh)

    Political and Communal Polarisation – Eg- “love jihad” controversy.

    Concerns over Conversion – Anxiety around forced or strategic religious conversion.

    Legal and Procedural Barriers – Special Marriage Act involves public notice of 30 days.

    Limited Institutional Support compared to inter-caste marriages.

    Indian society demonstrates “Segmented Modernization.” While economic parity acts as a “Social Solvent” for caste boundaries, it fails to dissolve religious walls.

  • Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

    “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

    Need to take Gender Concerns into account

    Better targeting in welfare schemes – Eg- women constitute 63% of agriculture workforce but own only 13% land – incorporating gender concerns can address this gap

    Correcting historical disadvantage – Eg- houses registered in the name of women under PM Awas Yojana

    Maximizing Economic Returns- The IMF notes that closing the gender gap could boost India’s GDP by 27%.

    Improving Efficiency- Eg- involving women in water committees under Jal Jeevan Mission ensures better maintenance as they are the primary water managers.

    Upholding Constitutional Mandates- Article 15(3) allows for special provisions for women. Gender-sensitive design fulfills this obligation.

    Long term Social Change happens when women are “agents” rather than “beneficiaries.” Eg- Kudumbashree in Kerala

    Achieving SDG’s like 1(ending poverty), 3 (health and wellbeing) and 5 (gender equality)

    Enhancing development outcomes – Gender inclusion multiplies benefits. Eg- Educating girls improves health, nutrition, and intergenerational outcomes.

    Global best practices and commitments – Eg- Gender budgeting advocated by UN Women.

    To awaken the people, it is the women who must be awakened. Once she is on the move, the family moves, the village moves, the nation moves.

    Communalism, Regionalism & Secularism.

  • What is the concept of a ‘demographic winter’? Is the world moving towards such a situation? Elaborate.

    The term demographic winter refers to a situation of persistently low fertility rates, leading to population ageing, workforce shrinkage and long-term economic and social challenges.

    Features of ‘Demographic Winter’

    Below Replacement Fertility (<2.1) for a prolonged period. Eg- Italy

    Decline in the working-age population.

    Negative Population Growth in extreme cases. Eg- Japan, Ukraine, Russia, China

    High Old-Age Dependency Ratio

    Economic Slowdown Risks – Reduced consumption, innovation, and productivity.

    Fiscal Stress on State – Pressure on pensions, healthcare, and social security systems.

    World moving towards demographic winter

    Arguments in favour

    Falling Global Fertility Rates – declined from about 5 in 1950 to near 2.4 in 2025

    Regions Already in Demographic Winter

    East Asia

    South Korea has the world’s lowest TFR (projected 0.65-0.68 for 2026).

    Japan has seen its population shrink for over a decade

    China recorded its fourth consecutive year of population decline in 2025.

    Europe

    Countries like Italy, Spain, and Greece have TFRs around 1.2-1.4.

    Eastern European nations (Bulgaria, Latvia) are facing “double winters” due to low births combined with massive youth emigration.

    Among developing countries

    Brazil, Thailand, and Vietnam are seeing faster-than-expected fertility declines as they urbanize.

    India’s TFR is 1.9 as per UNFPA

    Changing Social Values – Eg- movements like “Tang Ping” (lying flat) in China and the “DINK” (Double Income, No Kids) lifestyle

    Arguments against

    Some regions still have high fertility. Eg- TFR for Africa is around 4%

    Countries like India are still in a favourable age structure phase. Eg- median age of 28.

    Nations like Canada, Australia, and the UAE use aggressive immigration policies to offset low domestic birth rates

    Even with low fertility, the global population will not peak until the 2080s (at ~10.3 billion)

    Thus, the way forward lies in managing demographic diversity through adaptive policies and balancing population stabilisation, economic sustainability, and social welfare

    Poverty and developmental issues

  • What were the events that led to the Quit India Movement? Point out its results.

    The Quit India Movement, launched on August 8, 1942, emerged from the failure of British wartime promises and growing nationalist impatience, marking the final mass uprising against colonial rule.

    Events leading to the Quit India Movement

    Unilateral involvement of India in World War II without Indian consent created political resentment.

    Failure of Constitutional Negotiations

    Collapse of the August Offer (1940) due to no commitment to immediate transfer of power disappointed nationalists.

    Cripps Mission (1942) failed to satisfy Indian demands – Offer of dominion status after the war, with right of provinces to secede. Gandhiji called it “post dated cheque”

    Growing Economic Hardship – War-time inflation, shortages, and taxation aggravated public suffering.

    Rapid Japanese advances in Southeast Asia exposed British military vulnerability. Nationalists believed British withdrawal was necessary for India’s defence.

    Use of repressive laws like Defense of India Act angered Indian

    Results of the Quit India Movement

    Mass uprising despite leadership arrests – Spontaneous participation of students, peasants, workers, and women.

    Establishment of Parallel Governments in several places like Ballia (Chitu Pandey), Tamluk (Jatiya Sarkar), and Satara (Prati Sarkar),

    Brutal British Repression- Eg- Mass arrests, firing, and censorship during 1942-43.

    Emergence of local leaders kept the movement alive. Eg- Role of Aruna Asaf Ali, Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia.

    INA trials (1945-46) triggered nationwide protests involving civilians and soldiers.

    Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (1946) in Bombay, Karachi, Madras, with slogans of Quit India and INA support.

    Quit India set the stage for Cabinet Mission and independence talks.

    As noted by Bipan Chandra, it was a “spontaneous revolution” that proved the British presence was no longer sustainable.

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