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  • “The duty of the Comptroller and Auditor General is not merely to ensure the legality of expenditure but also its propriety.” Comment.

    The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), established under Article 148 of the Constitution, is the guardian of the public purse.
    While legality focuses on whether expenditure is made according to law, propriety examines whether such expenditure is justified, prudent, and in the public interest.

    Ensuring Legality of Expenditure

    Ensures all expenditures are authorized by Parliament or State Legislature through Appropriation Acts.

    Verifies that funds are drawn from the Consolidated Fund only under proper sanction.

    Checks compliance with financial rules, codes, and delegated authorities.

    Prevents unauthorized re-appropriation or excess expenditure beyond approved limits.

    Eg- CAG’s audit of defence expenditure.

    Ensuring Propriety of Expenditure

    Examines whether expenditure is necessary, justifiable, and in the public interest – Ensures Responsible Use of Public Funds

    Prevents Misuse – Evaluates waste, extravagance, or favouritism even if legally permissible.

    Strengthens spirit of financial responsibility – Questions whether spending ensures value for money and meets ethical standards of governance.

    Promotes a culture of fiscal morality and prudence in the use of public funds.

    Strengthens Parliamentary Control and oversight with insights on ethical and prudent financial management

    Examples of Propriety Concerns Highlighted by CAG

    2G Spectrum Allocation (2010)

    Commonwealth Games (2010)

    Coal Block Allocations (2012)- Identified procedural irregularities and favoritism

    “The CAG is the conscience-keeper of public finance, ensuring not only lawful but also wise spending.” – 2nd ARC

  • Critically analyse the proposition that there is a high correlation between India’s cultural diversities and socio-economic marginalities.

    India is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world, characterised by numerous ethnicities, religions, languages, castes, tribes, and regional identities.

    Correlation between India’s cultural diversities and socio-economic marginalities

    Historical Discrimination Legacy in land ownership, credit access, and human capital that correlate with cultural identities.

    Occupational Lock-ins – Traditional caste or community occupations persist, limiting upward mobility. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Limited Political Voice – Smaller cultural groups historically underrepresented in power structures, affecting resources and development priorities. Eg- <10% SC, STs in secretariat position in GoI

    Tribal communities (Adivasis) living in remote belts face poor education, health, and infrastructure access.

    Geographical Isolation – Culturally distinct groups in hilly or forested areas often lack services and markets. Eg- lack of connectivity in North-East

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    Minority Religious Communities show lower education and employment outcomes as highlighted in the Sachar Committee report. Eg- higher % of muslim undertrails in Jail

    Linguistic Marginalization – Proficiency in English (a cultural/class marker) creates a divide between the “globalized elite” and those restricted to regional languages.

    Marginalization of transgenders and LGBTQ due to social discrimination and lack of access to basic amenities like health, education

    Other factors for Socio-Economic marginalities

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Rural-Urban Divide – Consumption and wage gaps.

    Infrastructure Deficits – Poor connectivity, electricity, and sanitation in backward districts hinder productivity.

    Gender Pay Gap – Women continue to earn significantly less than men

    Policy Implementation Gaps – affirmative policies sometimes fail to reach intended beneficiaries due to bureaucratic and governance bottlenecks. Eg- inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS

    However, cultural diversity has also helped in addressing socio-economic marginalities

    Affirmative action policies

    Reservation for SC, ST, OBC

    Tribal specific schemes like Van Dhan Scheme

    Rise of “Dalit Capitalism”

    Certain minority groups are among the most economically prosperous in India. Eg- Parsi and Jain communities

    Caste-Based Political Mobilization for claiming state resources and welfare. Eg- rise of OBC politics

    With improved data (caste census), better governance, and targeted policies, diversity can be transformed from a potential vulnerability into a driver of inclusive growth.

    Caste

  • What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

    As per Granville Austin, India is a “cooperative federalism” model, where Centre and States are bound in a “seamless web” to achieve socio-economic revolution. The recent changes highlight the spirit of ‘competitive-cooperative federalism’.

    Recent Changes in Centre-State Relations

    Legislative

    Farm Acts, 2020 – Parliament legislated in agriculture (State subject) under Concurrent List.

    GNCTD (Amendment) Act, 2021 – Enhanced LG’s powers in Delhi.

    All India Services rules amendment – Greater Centre control over deputation/discipline.

    Executive / Institutional

    Governor-State tensions – Delayed assent to bills (TN, Kerala, WB).

    Pandemic handling – Centralised lockdown and restrictions.

    Revival of Inter-State Council

    NITI Aayog – Replaced Planning Commission

    Financial

    15th Finance Commission – New devolution formula using 2011 census and performance criteria.

    GST Council – Extended GST compensation cess.

    Rise in cess & surcharges – increased from 10.4% in 2011-12 to 20% in 2021-22.

    Conditional borrowing – Linked to reforms under FRBM/Art. 293.

    Issues in Centre-State Relations

    Financial Issues

    Cesses & surcharges not shared with States.

    Special category status demand – Bihar, Andhra Pradesh.

    Finance Commission TOR – (e.g., use of 2011 Census penalising southern States).

    GST regime – Delayed compensation, reduced fiscal autonomy.

    Administrative Issues

    Governor’s appointment & dismissal (Art. 156) – Often politically motivated

    Control over All India Services

    Central agencies’ overreach – CBI, ED, NIA operating in States without consent.

    Legislative Issues

    Encroachment on State List – use of Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897 and Disaster Management Act, 2005 in public health (a State subject).

    Measures to Build Trust & Strengthen Federalism

    Sarkaria Commission (1983-88)

    Inter-State Council (Art. 263) to be activated as a permanent forum for consultation.

    Governor’s role – should be impartial; appointment in consultation with CM.

    Centre’s use of Art. 356 – to be a measure of last resort.

    All India Services – joint consultation in rules of recruitment, posting, and deputation.

    Punchhi Commission (2007-10)

    Clear guidelines for Governor’s office – fixed tenure, limited discretion, no arbitrary withholding of assent to bills.

    Concurrent List – reduce overlap by greater consultation before Union laws are enacted.

    National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC, 2000)

    Decentralisation – strengthen local bodies and fiscal devolution.

    Inter-Governmental Forums – regular meetings between PM and CMs to resolve disputes.

    Second Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC, 2005-09)

    Neutral federal institutions – e.g., CBI under Lokpal for credibility, not political misuse.

    Fiscal federalism – ensure predictability in devolution; reduce tied grants in Centrally Sponsored Schemes.

    Finance Commission Recommendations

    Suggested GST Council as a true federal forum for resolving fiscal disputes.

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Thus, such Acts must be exercised with consultation and cooperation.

  • Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity.

    “Privacy is the constitutional core of human dignity.” – Justice D.Y. Chandrachud

    The Supreme Court in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) declared that Right to Privacy is intrinsic to Right to Life and Personal Liberty under Article 21.

    Scope of Right to Privacy (post-Puttaswamy)

    Informational Privacy – Protection of personal data, Aadhaar details, medical records, online footprints.

    Decisional Autonomy – Eg- Navtej Singh Johar (2018) decriminalised same-sex relations.

    Bodily Integrity – Eg- Suchita Srivastava v. Chandigarh Administration (2009) recognised reproductive choice.

    Family, Marriage & Relationships – Eg- Shafin Jahan v. Asokan (2018, Hadiya case) upheld interfaith marriage choice.

    Reproductive Rights – Eg- in X v. Principal Secretary, Health case (2022), SC allowed abortion for unmarried women under MTP Act.

    Digital Privacy – Protection against surveillance, right to internet access, and data protection in cyberspace. Eg- Aadhar Judgment

    However, Privacy is not absolute and subject to Reasonable Restrictions

    Test of Proportionality – Puttaswamy (2017) –

    Legality – sanctioned by law, with a just, fair, and reasonable procedure.

    Legitimate Aim – e.g., national security, public health.

    Proportionality – The nature, method, and extent of interference must be proportionate to the purpose sought.

    Arguments in Favour of DNA Testing

    Truth and Justice – Ensures scientific accuracy in resolving paternity disputes. Eg – Goutam Kundu v. State of West Bengal (1993) allowed DNA in exceptional cases.

    Child’s Right to Identity – Establishing paternity secures child’s dignity and identity under Article 21.

    Preventing Fraud – Avoids false claims in inheritance, custody, or maintenance disputes.

    Criminal Justice Support – DNA helps in rape and assault cases, strengthening convictions.

    International Standards – Aligns with UNCRC’s recognition of a child’s right to know parents.

    Arguments Against DNA Testing

    Privacy of Parents – Supreme Court in 2025 held that DNA cannot be used for “roving inquiries into paternity.”

    Right to Dignity – Privacy includes the right to be left alone; forceful DNA tests intrude into intimate decisions

    Genetic information = core privacy – DNA reveals “a person’s very essence” and is part of the fundamental right to privacy under Article 21.

    Potential Misuse – DNA demands in marital disputes may be used to harass women and allege infidelity.

    Mother’s dignity – Forced DNA tests also harm the reputation and dignity of mothers, by casting aspersions on fidelity.

    Presumption of Legitimacy – Section 112, Indian Evidence Act presumes legitimacy of child born in wedlock.

    Child’s dignity – Children cannot be treated as material objects in divorce battles; they have a right not to have their legitimacy frivolously questioned.

    UN Convention on Rights of the Child – Recognises privacy, autonomy and identity as core entitlements of children.

    Thus, the doctrine of ‘Eminent Need’ and ‘Last resort’ (Family courts should order DNA tests only in rare, expedient cases) is essential to balance a child’s right to identity with parents’ dignity and privacy.

  • Analyse the role of local bodies in providing good governance at local level and bring out the pros and cons merging the rural local bodies with the urban local bodies.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”.

    Role of Local Bodies in Ensuring Good Governance

    Citizen Participation in planning and decision-making through Gram Sabhas and Ward Committees. Eg- Kerala’s people plan campaign

    Transparency- Eg- Social audits under MGNREGA enhance transparency in fund utilization.

    Accountability- Elected representatives are directly answerable to citizens.

    Effectiveness and Efficiency- Proximity to citizens allows timely service delivery in areas like sanitation, water supply, and waste management.

    Equity and Inclusion through reservation for SCs, STs, OBCs, and women. Eg- Women’s Representation at 46.44%

    Responsiveness during Disasters. Eg- COVID-19 management and disaster relief in Kerala.

    Rule of Law- Local bodies function under constitutional and legal mandates of the 73rd and 74th Amendments, ensuring lawful governance.

    Consensus-Oriented Governance- Gram Sabhas and District Planning Committees promote coordination and collective decision-making.

    Sustainability- service delivery in waste recycling and water conservation. Eg- Hiware Bazar Model of watershed development.

    Challenges

    “PRIs exist as over-structured but underpowered organisations.” (2nd ARC)

    No decentralisation of power, rather decentralisation of corruption – Mani Shankar Iyer Committee

    Limited own-source revenue- Poor tax collection efficiency (>1% own tax).

    Incomplete devolution- less than 20% of States have transferred all 29 subjects under 11th Schedule (MoPR, 2022). (​​overall Panchayat Devolution Index is only 43.89% (2021-22))

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    Gender and social barriers leading to proxy control. (Sarpanch Pati)

    Pros of Merging Rural and Urban Local Bodies

    Integrated Regional Planning – Addresses rurban challenges and ensures seamless infrastructure and service delivery.

    Uniform Standards of Governance – Streamlines policies, taxation, and land-use planning.

    Efficient Resource Utilization – Shared funding and manpower reduce duplication.

    Better Management of Peri-Urban Areas – Urban expansion can be better planned and regulated.

    Cons of Merging Rural and Urban Local Bodies

    Dilution of Constitutional Intent under 73rd and 74th Amendments.

    Political Resistance – Power redistribution may face bureaucratic and political opposition.

    Administrative Complexity due to different laws, tax systems, and governance mechanisms.

    Urban areas may dominate resource allocation and decision-making.

    Local bodies are the cornerstones of participatory democracy and good governance. A functional convergence, not structural merger, aligns better with India’s constitutional vision of decentralization.

  • “The growth of cabinet system has practically resulted in the marginalisation of the parliamentary supremacy.” Elucidate.

    The Cabinet system, a legacy of the British parliamentary model, is based on the principle of collective responsibility of the executive to the Legislature. However, the growth of the Cabinet system has concentrated power in the hands of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers.

    Cabinet System Marginalising Parliamentary Supremacy

    Party Whip curtails independence of MPs, limiting free deliberation.

    Ordinance Power (Articles 123 & 213) bypasses legislative scrutiny.

    Prime Ministerial Supremacy due to centralisation of authority in PMO.

    Decline of Private Members’ Bills – The last such Bill was passed in 1970.

    Weak Legislative Scrutiny – Increasing absenteeism, fewer sittings, and guillotining of Demands for Grants.

    Decline of parliamentary Committees have weakened executive accountability.

    Coalition Politics results in bargaining politics instead of genuine legislative oversight.

    However, parliamentary control over executive can also be seen

    Executive Accountability – collective responsibility to Parliament under Article 75(3).

    Financial Oversight – Finance committees scrutinise government expenditure. Eg- PAC review of GST framework

    Budgetary Control (Art. 112) through Demands for Grants, and Appropriation Acts.

    Opposition’s Role – Eg- Farm Laws withdrawal.

    Role in Foreign Policy – Eg- debate on Civil Nuclear Deal with the US.

    Way Forward

    Publish Annual Parliamentary Calendar (NCRWC)

    Adopt Shadow Cabinet Model of UK, to institutionalise constructive opposition oversight.

    Allocate fixed time for Private Members’ Bills and Questions.

    Mandatory referral of Bill to Committees (UK system)

    “Parliament is the keystone of the democratic arch.” – Harold Laski

    For a resilient democracy, Parliament must function as the centre of deliberation and control, not as a department of the executive.

  • The groundwater potential of the gangetic valley is on a serious decline. How may it affect the food security of India?

    The Indo-Gangetic Valley is home to one of the world’s most prolific alluvial aquifer systems. Yet, according to the United Nations (2025-26) reports, several regions in this basin have crossed the “groundwater depletion tipping point.”

    Declining groundwater potential

    Nationwide, India extracts approximately 247 BCM of groundwater annually, more than China and the US combined.

    Groundwater storage in the Ganga basin is declining at an average rate of 2.6 cm per year. (CGWB)

    In Punjab and Haryana, nearly 78% of assessment units are categorized as “over-exploited.”

    Reasons Behind the Decline

    Green Revolution Legacy-The shift to High-Yielding Varieties (HYV) required 3-4 times more water than traditional seeds.

    Faulty Cropping Patterns-Cultivation of water-guzzling crops like Paddy in semi-arid regions (Punjab/Haryana) where they are not ecologically suited.

    Energy Subsidies-Free or heavily subsidized electricity leads to “blind pumping” in states like Punjab and Haryana.

    Inadequate Regulation-Under the Indian Easements Act 1882, groundwater is tied to land ownership, allowing landowners to extract unlimited water without legal penalty.

    Rapid urban expansion in cities like Delhi, Kanpur, and Patna has reduced the “pervious” area available for natural recharge.

    Climate Change & Monsoonal Shifts-Erratic rainfall patterns mean shorter, more intense bursts of rain that run off rather than seeping into the ground.

    Inefficient Irrigation-Traditional Flood Irrigation methods result in nearly 40% water wastage through evaporation and runoff.

    Deforestation in Catchment Areas-Loss of forest cover in the Himalayan foothills (Shivaliks) has disrupted the natural hydrological cycle that feeds the Gangetic aquifers.

    Industrial Contamination-Discharge of untreated effluents reduces the “potable” potential of the remaining groundwater.

    Population Pressure-With the IGP being one of the most densely populated regions globally, domestic demand has surged, competing directly with agriculture.

    Impact on Food Security

    Yield Reductions-Studies show a 1-meter decline in the water table can lead to an 8% reduction in food grain production.

    Threat to Staples-Punjab and Haryana provide 50% of India’s rice and 85% of its wheat, depletion here directly threatens the National Buffer Stock.

    Increased Cost of Cultivation-Farmers must drill deeper (up to 300-500 ft) and install expensive submersible pumps, leading to rural indebtedness.

    Punjab and Haryana supply a major portion of wheat and rice for the PDS. Reduced grain output affects government stocks.

    Food Inflation-Reduced supply and higher production costs lead to a spike in market prices, making food unaffordable for the poor.

    Quality Degradation (Nutritional Security)-As water levels drop, concentrations of Arsenic and Uranium increase. These enter the food chain, compromising food safety.

    Land Degradation-Excessive groundwater use leads to soil salinization, turning once-fertile alluvial tracts into barren “Usar” land.

    Reduced Cropping Intensity-Farmers who previously grew three crops a year (Zaid, Kharif, Rabi) are being forced to skip seasons due to dry wells.

    Vulnerability of Small Farmers-While wealthy farmers can afford deeper wells, marginal farmers lose access entirely, leading to “de-peasantization” and migration.

    Climate Instability-Without groundwater, Indian agriculture becomes more dependent on the vagaries of the monsoon.

    Way Forward

    Crop Diversification-Aggressively shifting from Paddy to Millets (Shree Anna), pulses, and oilseeds in over-exploited blocks.

    Micro-Irrigation-Scaling up the “Per Drop More Crop” initiative to make drip and sprinkler irrigation mandatory for water-intensive crops.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)-Utilizing the Mission Amrit Sarovar to rejuvenate 75,000+ local ponds to act as recharge pits.

    Power Reforms-Transitioning from free electricity to Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) for electricity.

    Unified Water Governance-Implementing the Mihir Shah Committee recommendations to merge the CGWB and CWC into a single National Water Commission.

    Community-Led Management-Scaling the Atal Bhujal Yojana model where villagers prepare “Water Security Plans” based on their local water budget.

    Legal Reform-Updating the 19th-century Easement Act to treat groundwater as a “Common Pool Resource” rather than private property.

    Aligning agricultural policies with ecological limits and climate resilience can ensure long term food security.

    Indian Geography

  • What is a twister? Why are the majority of twisters observed in areas around the Gulf of Mexico?

    Key Features of a Twister

    Funnel-shaped cloud – Visible condensation funnel extending downward.

    Very high wind speeds – Can exceed 300 km/h (EF5 category).

    Short duration – Typically lasts minutes but causes intense damage.

    Narrow path of destruction – Damage track often a few hundred meters wide.

    Associated with supercell thunderstorms

    Low pressure core – Central pressure drop causes debris uplift.

    Occurs mostly in mid-latitudes – Especially continental interiors.

    Formation Process of a Twister

    Warm, moist air near the surface rises rapidly.

    Cold, dry air above descends below.

    Wind shear develops – Change in wind speed and direction with height.

    Horizontal rotation forms in the lower atmosphere.

    Updraft tilts rotation vertically, forming a mesocyclone.

    Supercell thunderstorm develops.

    A funnel cloud forms and extends to ground, becoming a tornado.

    Reasons for Majority of Twisters Around the Gulf of Mexico

    Continuous supply of warm, moist air – Gulf waters average 25-30°C.

    Collision of contrasting air masses – Warm Gulf air meets cold Canadian air over central U.S.

    No Latitudinal Barriers- Unlike Europe’s Alps, North America has no east-west mountain ranges to block the collision of these contrasting air masses.

    Low-Level Jet Streams from the Gulf provide the necessary wind shear to initiate rotation near the ground.

    Dryline effect – Dry air from Rockies creates a sharp moisture gradient leading to storm development.

    The Great Plains and Mississippi Valley offer a smooth “runway” that prevents the disruption of rotating storm structures.

    Proximity to Tornado Alley – Central U.S. records ~75% of world’s tornadoes.

    The high frequency of thunderstorms in the gulf region creates tornados. 83% of Gulf hurricanes since 1950 have produced at least one tornado.

    As climate variability enhances the frequency and intensity of tornados, advanced radar detection and robust disaster preparedness is needed for disaster risk reduction.

  • What is sea surface temperature rise? How does it affect the formation of tropical cyclones?

    Sea Surface Temperature (SST) rise refers to the increase in temperature of the upper layer of ocean water. It is a critical indicator of the Earth’s climate health

    Causes of sea surface temperature rise

    Greenhouse gas emissions – Eg- Atmospheric CO₂ crossed 425 ppm.

    Global warming trend – Eg- Earth warmed ~1.44°C since pre-industrial levels. (IPCC)

    Marine heatwaves – Persistent abnormal warming events.

    Weakening ocean circulation reduces heat redistribution. Eg- Slowing Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC).

    El Niño events – Periodic warming of Pacific surface waters.

    Declining polar ice cover – Reduced albedo effect increases absorption.

    Ocean Stratification- As surface water warms, it becomes lighter and fails to mix with deeper, cooler water

    Impact of SST rise on formation of tropical cyclones

    Minimum SST of 26.5°C was required for a cyclone to form. Rising sea temperature has led to

    Cyclones in South Atlantic and higher latitudes of the Pacific

    Arabian Sea witnessing more intense storms. Eg- Cyclone Nisarga (2020) near Maharashtra coast.

    Enhanced evaporation – Warmer oceans increase moisture supply. Eg- Rapid moisture buildup before Cyclone Amphan (2020).

    Rapid Intensification (RI)- High SSTs provide an explosive amount of latent heat. Eg- Hurricane Milton (2024) jumped from Category 1 to Category 5 in under 24 hours.

    Greater Storm Size- Eg- Super Cyclone Amphan (2020) covered almost the entire Bay of Bengal during its peak.

    For every 1°C of SST rise, the air holds 7% more water vapor. This leads to greater rainfall during cyclonic activity.

    High SSTs allow storms to carry their moisture further inland before dissipating. Eg- Hurricane Harvey in Texas

    Higher storm surge risk – Combined SST rise and sea-level rise amplify flooding. Eg- Cyclone Idai (2019) caused severe coastal inundation.

    Shift in cyclone tracks and behavior due to altered SST gradients. Eg- Increasing westward shift of North Indian Ocean cyclones.

    Addressing this challenge requires a multi-layered climate and disaster strategy–

    Mitigate greenhouse gas emissions

    Strengthen ocean monitoring systems

    Improve cyclone early warning systems

    Protect natural buffers. Eg- mangroves

  • What is the phenomenon of ‘cloudbursts’? Explain.

    IMD defines cloudburst as an extreme weather event involving very high-intensity rainfall (often >100 mm/hour) over a small geographical area (20-30 sq. km.) within a short duration.

    Orographic Uplift

    Moist air masses are forced to rise abruptly when they encounter steep mountain slopes.

    Rapid ascent causes condensation and release of latent heat, intensifying convection.

    Strong Convective Clouds (Cumulonimbus) up to 12-15 km.

    Moisture Supply from Monsoon Systems enhances instability.

    When updrafts weaken, large volumes of accumulated rainwater are released at once, causing cloudburst-like rainfall.

    Occurrence of cloudburst in the Indian Subcontinent

    Himalayan and Western Ghat Topography – Steep slopes promote rapid vertical uplift.

    Monsoon Dynamics – High atmospheric moisture during June-September.

    Climate Change – Rising temperatures increase atmospheric moisture-holding capacity. Eg- every 1°C rise lets air hold ~7% more moisture.

    Land-Use Changes – Deforestation, slope cutting, and urbanisation increase runoff and disaster impact.

    Mitigation measures

    Structural

    Engineering solutions – Retaining walls, slope drainage, rock bolting, geo-textiles,

    Nature based solutions – Afforestation in himalaya

    Non-Structural

    Expansion of multi-hazard insurance

    Disaster resilient urban planning (Mishra committee on Joshimath crisis)

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

    Geomorphology

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