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  • “The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.

    The international system is shifting from the ‘unipolar’ and Western-led liberal order to a more ‘hybrid’, decentralised and polycentric system (‘multi-polar’ world order). In this context, India’s role has also transformed as an emerging global power.

    India’s Earlier Role as a Voice of the Marginalised

    The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) promoted strategic autonomy and South-South solidarity against superpower blocs.

    Economic Advocacy- At UNCTAD and G77, India pushed for a New International Economic Order (NIEO) to reform global trade and finance.

    Decolonisation- Eg- opposition to apartheid in South Africa

    Disarmament Diplomacy- Advocated global nuclear disarmament.

    WTO Diplomacy – Advocacy for Doha Agenda

    Shift in India’s Global Posture – Rise of Realpolitik

    Economic Liberalisation (1991)- Shift from Third World solidarity to global integration. Eg- recent FTA with UK

    Shift from Non-Alignment to Multi Alignment – Strategic Partnerships with US, Japan, France, and Israel based on Enlightened self interest.

    Membership in Quad, SCO, BRICS, and G20, signal pragmatic engagement beyond ideological blocs.

    Nuclear Tests (1998)- Assertion of national power replaced earlier moral idealism.

    Energy & Security Diplomacy- India’s West Asia, I2U2, and Indo-Pacific strategies reflect a realist pursuit of interests.

    Reduced Role in NAM– Eg- PM Modi skipping NAM Summit

    India’s Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific strategy align with global power equations and economic interests.

    Strategic Balancing- Maintaining relations with US (Quad), Russia (defence), and China (BRICS/SCO) reflects sophisticated multi-vector diplomacy.

    However, India Still Asserts Its Ethical Stance and Voice of the Global South

    South-South Cooperation- India extends Lines of Credit, ITEC training, and humanitarian aid to 160+ nations.

    Humanitarian diplomacy under Vaccine Maitri (2021)- Supplied vaccines to over 90 countries.

    Voice of Global South Summit (2023)- representing Global South concerns on debt, food, and digital inclusion.

    Climate Justice Advocacy- India’s stand for common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR).

    Digital Public Goods Diplomacy- Eg- promotion of India Stack and UPI models in Africa.

    Ethical Multilateralism- Eg- call for UNSC reform and rule-based global order, rooted in the civilisational ethos of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (“One Earth, One Family, One Future”).

    The world order today is in ‘flux’ (M. K. Narayanan). Issue based partnerships rather than alliances is the order of the day (S. Jaishankar)

  • Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments.

    India is projected to sustain GDP growth of 6.5% between FY28-30, positioning it as the world’s third-largest consumer market by 2026 and the third-largest economy by 2028. (UBS)

    Arguments Supporting the View (Indian economy in good shape)

    High GDP Growth – India remains the fastest-growing major economy. 7% in FY 2025.

    Moderating Inflation – Eg- Retail inflation fell to a historic low of 0.25% in October 2025, due to GST rate cuts

    Forex reserves at over $689 billion provide external stability.

    Fiscal Consolidation Path- Fiscal deficit targeted to reduce to 4.8% of GDP in 2025-26.

    Robust Financial Sector- Gross NPAs have declined from 9.11% (2021) to 2.8% (2025).

    Production-linked incentives (PLI) has raised India’s manufacturing attractiveness. Eg: Electronics exports at a record $38 billion in 2024-25. (32% increase)

    Arguments Against the View (Macro vulnerabilities persist)

    Jobless Growth –Service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs less than 30% workforce

    High food inflation due to climate shocks, hurting the poor.

    Rural Distress due to weak agriculture real wages and uneven monsoons.

    Global slowdown, protectionism, and China’s dominance limit India’s merchandise exports.

    High Public Debt- General government debt remains around 82% of GDP (IMF, 2024), limiting fiscal room.

    The share of Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) was about 34.6% of GDP in 2023-24 and slipped to 29.61% of GDP in 2024, indicating weak investment.

    Way Forward

    Enhance R&D (2.5% of GDP), reduce logistics costs (PM Gati Shakti), and expand PLI schemes to boost manufacturing.

    Promote labour-intensive manufacturing (textiles, toys, food processing) and expand services exports (IT, GBS, health tourism).

    Improve ease of doing business, accelerate contract enforcement, and reduce regulatory uncertainty to crowd-in private capital.

    Strengthen FOREX buffers and expand rupee trade settlement

    Encourage domestic production of critical inputs (electronics, APIs, green tech) to reduce vulnerability to global shocks.

    As highlighted by the Economic Survey, India must prioritise blue-sky thinking and foster a virtuous cycle of investment to achieve Viksit Bharat@2047.

  • It is argued that the strategy of inclusive growth is intended to meet the objectives of inclusiveness and sustainability together. Comment on this statement.

    As per OECD, inclusive growth is economic growth distributed fairly across society and creates opportunities for all.

    Inclusive Growth Promoting Inclusiveness

    Expands economic opportunities with focus on education, health, skilling, and access to markets. Eg- PM-JANMAN for tribal inclusion.

    Balanced regional growth with targeted interventions.

    Income security – Social protection systems like MGNREGA, NFSA, PM-KISAN reduce vulnerability and support inclusive livelihoods.

    Strengthens financial inclusion – Eg- PM Jan Dhan Yojana opened 500 million+ bank accounts

    Equality of Opportunity – Eg- the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016

    Ayushman Bharat: Provided free healthcare to 23 crore people.

    Inclusive Growth Ensuring Sustainability

    Affordable and clean energy (SDG 7) – PM Ujjwala Yojana distributed 10 crore LPG connections

    Encourages sustainable consumption and production patterns (SDG 12). Eg- Mission LiFE

    Supports protection of natural resources-forests, soil, and biodiversity (SDG 15). Eg: Compensatory Afforestation Funds

    Sustainable Livelihoods – Promotes climate-resilient agriculture, water conservation, and diversified livelihoods.

    Institutional Sustainability (SDG 16, SDG 17) through decentralisation, cooperative federalism and data-driven governance. Eg- Aspirational Districts Programme.

    Interlinking between Inclusiveness and Sustainability

    Inequality weakens long-term economic growth

    Environmental degradation hits the poorest hardest – Eg- Disaster induced Migration

    Inclusive growth strengthens environmental stewardship

    Sustainable livelihoods reduce vulnerability

    Intergenerational equity depends on both

    Challenges to Inclusive Growth under a Market Economy

    Rising inequality– Eg- the top 1% control 40% of net personal wealth.

    Regional disparities due to unequal investment and infrastructure. Eg- BIMARU States

    Jobless growth – Service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs less than 30% workforce

    Weak social protection for informal workers (over 85% of India’s workforce).

    Market failures in public goods. Eg- Digital Apartheid in Education

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach (Amartya Sen) – increase Education and health spending to 6% and 2.5% of GDP respectively

    Strengthen progressive taxes, wealth taxes and targeted subsidies to reduce income inequality and expand welfare spending.

    Align national policies with Paris Agreement targets

    Universalise social security, pensions, maternity benefits, and unemployment allowance

    A nexus approach towards sustainability and inclusiveness is needed for ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.’

  • The need for cooperation among various service sector has been an inherent component of development discourse. Partnership bridges bring the gap among the sectors. It also sets in motion a culture of ‘Collaboration’ and ‘team spirit’. In the light of statements above examine India’s Development process.

    The Indian Constitution envisions a Welfare State under the DPSP (Articles 36-51), mandating the State to ensure social, economic, and political justice through equitable development.

    Need for Cooperation Among Service Sectors

    Complex Interdependence – Development issues are multi-dimensional.

    Integrated Development Approach

    Inter-sectoral Coordination

    Efficiency and Resource Optimization

    Innovation and Knowledge Sharing

    Inclusive Governance and development through participation

    Accountability and Transparency

    India’s Development Process through Collaborative Partnerships

    Government-Private Sector Partnership (PPP) – Eg- Smart Cities Mission, Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission

    Inter-Governmental Collaboration – Eg- NITI Aayog’s Governing Council, PM Gati Shakti Master Plan

    Government-Civil Society Partnership – Eg- SEWA and PRADAN partner with government programmes for women’s empowerment and livelihoods.

    Public-Private-Community Partnerships (PPCP) – Eg- Swachh Bharat Mission combines government funding, corporate CSR, and community action.

    Technology and Data Collaborations – Eg- UPI integrate government, fintech, and private service sectors.

    Achievements

    Economic – Fastest growing Economy

    Infrastructure Efficiency through PPPs

    PPP projects worth under implementation (DEA, 2024).

    NH construction speed increased from 12 km/day (2014) to 37 km/day (2023).

    Financial Inclusion via Digital Collaboration

    UPI transactions exceeded ; serves 491 million individuals and 65 million merchants.

    JAM trinity enabled by eliminating subsidy leakages (BlueKraft, 2024).

    Water and Sanitation Progress through Multi-Stakeholder Models

    Jal Jeevan Mission: 15 crore households connected to tap water (2025).

    Swachh Bharat Mission: Rural open defecation reduced from 55% (2014) to near zero (2020).

    Decentralized Development through Cooperative Federalism

    15th Finance Commission devolved directly to PRIs and ULBs for local service delivery.

    Aspirational Districts Programme: 95% districts show improvement in health & education indicators (NITI Aayog, 2023).

    Self-Help Group (SHG) movement: 9.3 crore women linked to banks under DAY-NRLM, with credit linkage of (2024).

    Limitations

    Institutional Fragmentation – Overlapping jurisdictions and poor coordination between Centre, State, and local bodies. Eg- Delays in PM Awas Yojana (Urban)

    Capacity Deficit at Local Levels – lack of 3F’s

    Incomplete or outdated local datasets hinder data-driven decision-making.

    Weak Accountability – Eg- Inadequate social audit mechanisms

    Digital Divide – Eg- NFHS-5 (2021) showed only 43% of rural households have internet access, affecting e-governance uptake.

    Trust Deficit between Stakeholders – Eg- CSO perceived as anti-development or foreign influenced.

    Funding and Regulatory Constraints: Tightened FCRA norms and compliance burdens for NGOs.

    Way Forward for Collaborative Partnerships

    Adopt Best Practices

    Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign

    Participatory Budgeting in porto alegre brazil

    Institutional Convergence and Coordination – Eg- Expand PM Gati Shakti model to social sectors like health and education.

    Capacity Building through Digital Governance – Eg- Kerala’s Information Kerala Mission digitized local governance workflows.

    Decentralized Governance based on principle of subsidiarity.

    Data Integration through NDAP, GIS platforms, and PRAGATI dashboards for evidence-based decisions.

    A coordinated, transparent, and participatory relations between various service sectors can truly make development inclusive, sustainable and rapid.

  • ‘In the context of neo-liberal paradigm of development planning, multi-level planning is expected to make operations cost effective and remove many implementation blockages.’-Discuss.

    The Indian Constitution envisions a Welfare State under the DPSP (Articles 36-51), mandating the State to ensure social, economic, and political justice through equitable development. Neo-liberal paradigm of development planning has redefined how welfare objectives are pursued.

    Characteristics of the Neo-Liberal Paradigm of Development Planning

    Market Orientation – Eg- 1991 economic reforms.

    Decentralized Governance – Eg- 73rd & 74th Amendments.

    Outcome-Based Planning

    Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) – Eg- Smart Cities Mission.

    Ease of Doing Business

    Technology-Driven Governance – Eg- DBT.

    Fiscal Prudence – Eg- rationalisation of CSS

    Multi-Level Planning for Cost-Effectiveness

    Integrated Planning removes duplication and overlapping Eg- Aspirational Districts Programme converges 15+ central schemes for health, education, and livelihoods.

    Bottom-Up Planning ensures context-specific solutions reflecting local needs and geographies. Eg- Village Development Plans by Gram Sabhas

    Participatory Decision-Making empowers Gram Sabhas, SHGs, and local NGOs, leading to community ownership and reduced wastage. Eg- Social Audits under MGNREGA.

    Data-Driven planning and resource allocation. Eg- PM Gati Shakti Mission

    Fiscal Accountability – Eg- 15th Finance Commission introduced performance-linked local grants for service delivery.

    Multi-Level Planning for Removing Implementation Blockages

    Inter-Governmental Coordination among Centre, States, and Local Bodies. Eg- PM Gati Shakti National Master Plan links 16 ministries through a single GIS platform for synchronized infrastructure rollout.

    Streamlined Administrative Processes reduces bureaucratic red tape and delays.

    Real-Time Monitoring allows early identification of bottlenecks and mid-course correction. Eg- PRAGATI platform facilitates top-level review and resolution of project delays.

    Capacity Building – Multi-tier structure enables technical support and training from higher levels to local planners. Eg- karmayogi iGot Platform

    Crisis Management – Decentralized governance strengthens resilience during natural disasters or pandemics.

    Challenges in Multi-Level Planning

    Institutional Fragmentation – Overlapping jurisdictions and poor coordination between Centre, State, and local bodies. Eg- Delays in PM Awas Yojana (Urban)

    Capacity Deficit at Local Levels – lack of 3F’s

    Fiscal Dependence on state and central grants. Eg- Only 10% of ULBs generate sufficient own-source revenue (NITI Aayog).

    Incomplete or outdated local datasets hinder data-driven decision-making.

    Political Centralization – Eg- District Planning Committees (Article 243ZD) remain underutilized in most states.

    Weak Accountability – Eg- Inadequate social audit mechanisms

    Way Forward for Strengthening Multi-Level Planning

    Adopt Best Practices

    Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign

    Participatory Budgeting in porto alegre brazil

    Institutional Convergence and Coordination – Eg- Expand PM Gati Shakti model to social sectors like health and education.

    Capacity Building through Digital Governance – Eg- Kerala’s Information Kerala Mission digitized local governance workflows.

    Decentralized Governance based on principle of subsidiarity.

    Data Integration through NDAP, GIS platforms, and PRAGATI dashboards for evidence-based decisions.

    A coordinated, transparent, and participatory planning ecosystem can truly make development inclusive, sustainable and rapid.

  • “The Attorney-General is the chief legal adviser and lawyer of the Government of India.” Discuss.

    The Attorney-General of India (Article 76), is the highest law officer of the Union Government. He plays a vital role in upholding the rule of law and ensuring constitutional governance.

    Constitutional Position and Functions

    As legal adviser

    Legal Adviser to the Government (Article 76(2)) on matters referred to him by the President.

    Advisory Role in Legislation – Consulted in drafting Bills, Presidential references (Art. 143), and interpreting constitutional provisions.

    Ex-Officio Role – Participates in Parliamentary proceedings (without voting rights) to clarify legal positions.

    Facilitator of Constitutional Mechanism – By advising the President and other governmental bodies, the AG ensures the constitutionality of laws and executive actions, thus maintaining the integrity of the Constitution.

    As Lawyer of GoI

    Representation in Courts on behalf of the Union. Eg- in the Triple Talaq and Rafale Deal cases.

    Right of Audience in all Indian courts, even without being a party.

    Defends Union Actions – Represents the government in public interest litigations, constitutional disputes, and international arbitration matters. Eg- M.C. Setalvad (1950-1963) – Defended the constitutionality of preventive detention laws under Article 22 in A.K. Gopalan case

    Limitations

    Unlike the U.S. Attorney General, who heads the Department of Justice and oversees federal law enforcement, the Indian AG has no administrative or prosecutorial powers.

    No Fixed Tenure – Holds office at the President’s pleasure.

    Conflict of Interest – Can practice privately, though not against the government.

    Lacks constitutional safeguards or autonomy like the CAG or EC.

    Uncertain Service Conditions – Remuneration and terms decided by the executive.

    Limited Accountability – Not answerable to Parliament for advice or actions.

    Way Forward

    UK – Shawcross Principle– Ensures the AG’s independence in prosecutorial decisions

    Provide a minimum fixed term to safeguard the AG’s independence from executive pressure.

    Require periodic reporting to Parliament on key legal opinions and government litigation.

    Code of Ethics to ensure the AG upholds constitutional morality and political neutrality.

    Strengthening this office’s autonomy, institutional capacity, and ethical standards is vital for preserving the rule of law.

  • Individual Parliamentarian’s role as the national lawmaker is on a decline, which in turn, has adversely impacted the quality of debates and their outcome. Discuss.

    The Parliament of India is the temple of democracy and an MP would act as a national trustee. However, as per Former VP, Hamid Ansari, Parliament has turned into ‘chamber of anarchy’ due to declining role and productivity of members.

    Functions of MPs

    Legislative Function – Making, amending, and repealing laws.

    Deliberative Function – Debating national policies and public issues.

    Executive Oversight Function – Question Hour, motions, committees

    Financial Function – Approving the Budget, Demands for Grants, and financial bills.

    Representative Function – Voicing citizens’ concerns and constituency interests.

    Indicators of Decline in Individual Parliamentarian’s Role

    Legislative Function

    Marginalization of Private Members’ Bills – Only 14 passed since 1952.

    Lack of thorough scrutiny of bills- During the term of the 17th LS, 58% of the Bills introduced were passed within two weeks of their introduction. Eg- the J&K Reorganisation Bill, 2019

    Weak research and knowledge support – Inadequate access to legislative data and expert analysis undermines quality of debates.

    Deliberative Function

    Decline in sitting days – From 120+ days (1950s) to around 55 days in 17th LS, curtailing deliberation

    Declining attendance- In 2021, average attendance dropped to 71% in the Lok Sabha and 74% in the Rajya Sabha.

    Frequent disruptions and adjournments – During the 17th Lok Sabha, MPs were suspended on 206 instances, across both Houses of Parliament. In Winter Session 2023, 146 MPs were suspended for serious misconduct in the House.

    Party whip system – Strict control discourages independent viewpoints and policy reasoning.

    Financial Function

    Between 2019 and 2023, on average, about 80% of the budget has been voted on without discussion. In 2023, the entire budget was passed without discussion.

    Decline in budget scrutiny – Detailed examination of Demands for Grants often guillotined without debate.

    Weak engagement with financial committees – Falling participation in PAC, Estimates Committee, etc.

    Executive Oversight Function

    Question Hour functioned for 60% of scheduled time in LS and 52% in Rajya Sabha.

    Underutilized parliamentary committees – Low attendance and poor follow-up dilute scrutiny of executive performance.

    Resort to Money Bill route undermines RS. Eg- Aadhar Act

    Consequences of the Decline in Individual Parliamentarian’s Role

    Reduced Accountability – Rushing bills like the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023 limits scrutiny and weakens executive oversight.

    Criminalization of politics – as per ADR data, 46% of MPs elected in 2024 have criminal cases pending.

    Poor Legislative Quality – Farm Laws (2020) passed with minimal debate led to backlash and repeal.

    Legislative Stagnation – Delay in passage of important bills due to disruption

    Judicial Intervention – Weak legislative performance prompts courts to step in (e.g., NGT, social justice rulings).

    Ordinance Culture – Fewer sittings have led to rising ordinances (11 in 2020), bypassing Parliament.

    Public Disillusionment – Citizens lose faith in Parliament’s deliberative and representative role.

    Democratic Imbalance – Executive consolidation weakens checks and balances, harming deliberative democracy.

    Diminishing role of opposition MPs – Reduced speaking time and political polarization undermine effective oversight.

    Way Forward-

    Increase Working Days- Eg- NCRWC (2002) recommended Parliament meet for at least 110 days a year; currently, it averages 60-70 days.

    Enhancing Parliamentary Decorum- Encourage a culture of respect, professionalism, and active participation in debates.

    Enhance Research Support for MPs- Eg- UK Parliament’s Research Service aids MPs in informed decision-making

    Engaging Responsible Opposition– allowing opposition to set agenda on lines of UK House of Commons

    Mandatory referral of Bills to Committee

    As former Vice President M. Venkaiah Naidu aptly stated, “Disorder, disruption, and delay should not replace debate, discussion, and decision, which form the edifice of parliamentary democracy.”

  • ‘Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life.’ Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel bias’.

    UNESCO, established in 1945, promotes education, culture, heritage, and scientific cooperation as pillars of global peace.

    Context of US Withdrawal

    The United States withdrew from UNESCO in 2017, accusing it of anti-Israel bias.

    The trigger was UNESCO’s 2011 recognition of Palestine as a full member, and resolutions declaring East Jerusalem and Hebron as occupied Palestinian territories.

    The US described this as “politicization of culture”

    The US also objected to inefficient governance within the organization.

    It rejoined in 2023 but again withdrew in 2025 citing bias against Israel.

    Impact of the US Withdrawal

    Geopolitical Power Shift- Creates space for China’s greater influence within UNESCO.

    The US was UNESCO’s largest contributor (22% of its budget) – withdrawal caused program cuts.

    Cultural preservation, education, and global literacy programs suffered from lack of funds.

    Political polarization among members eroded UNESCO’s credibility and neutrality.

    Developing nations’ initiatives faced delays due to resource shortages.

    Highlights US unpredictability and undermines credibility of multilateral institutions

    Way Forward

    Depoliticize cultural resolutions and heritage conservation.

    Diversify funding sources to reduce reliance on a few donors.

    Strengthen transparency and consensus-based decision-making.

    Strengthen South-South and regional cooperation for promoting capacity-building in developing nations

    UNESCO’s revival requires inclusive governance and financial sustainability to rebuild global trust, credibility and address the ‘crisis of confidence’ in multilateralism.

  • “The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self- government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India.

    Positive Impact on Women’s Political Participation

    Increased Representation- Over 14 lakh women representatives currently serve in local bodies (MoPR, 2024).

    Leadership Development- Eg- Sulata Deo started her career as Sarpanch and became MP from Odisha

    Enhanced Service Delivery- Women-led Panchayats prioritize water, sanitation, education, and health issues. Eg- Chhavi Rajawat (Rajasthan)

    Social Change Catalysts by challenging gender stereotypes in public decision-making.

    Women leaders have strengthened Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and livelihood initiatives, promoting inclusive development. Eg- Bina Devi (“Mushroom Mahila”)

    Persistent Patriarchal Barriers in Women’s Political Participation at the Local Level

    Political Barriers

    Proxy Representation- The “Sarpanch Pati” phenomenon – husbands or male relatives exercise real power.

    Political parties rarely nominate women beyond the mandated quota, restricting vertical mobility in politics.

    Tokenism- Representation often confined to fulfilling quotas rather than genuine empowerment or participation in governance.

    Institutional Barriers

    Institutional and Bureaucratic Dominance undermine elected women’s authority, especially in resource allocation and project execution.

    Limited Decision-Making Power- exclusion from key committees or budgetary discussions.

    Economic Barriers

    Economic Dependence on male family members limits independence in political and developmental decisions.

    Social barriers

    Women representatives face verbal abuse, threats, and social ostracism, especially when asserting authority.

    Cultural and Social Norms- restrict women’s mobility and participation in public life. Eg- purdah system.

    Lack of education and political training weakens women’s administrative confidence and negotiation skills.

    Intersectional Barriers- Women from SC/ST and minority communities face additional layer of discrimination.

    Way Forward

    Mandate political parties to allot a fixed percentage of tickets to women beyond local bodies to ensure vertical mobility in politics.

    Mentorship and role model initiatives led by successful women sarpanchs to inspire grassroots participation.

    Capacity Building– Establish State Institutes of Rural Development (SIRDs) as nodal agencies for PRI training.

    Manishankar Aiyar Committee recommendations.

    Create Panchayat Ombudsman for grievance redressal.

    Adopt activity mapping for clear delineation of 3Fs – Funds, Functions, Functionaries.

    “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Ambedkar

    True empowerment lies in transforming participation into power, ensuring women are policy-shapers, not placeholders.

    Elections

  • “Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution is a limited power and it cannot be enlarged into absolute power.” In the light of this statement explain whether Parliament under Article 368 of the Constitution can destroy the Basic Structure of the Constitution by expanding its amending power?

    Article 368 empowers Parliament to amend the Constitution, but this power is not absolute. The SC, through the Basic Structure Doctrine, has clarified that while Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution, it cannot alter or destroy its essential features.

    Limitations on the Amending Power of Parliament

    Procedure under Article 368 – Constitutional amendments must strictly follow special majority and, where applicable, state ratification (for federal provisions).

    Basic Structure Doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973) – Parliament cannot alter, abrogate, or destroy the Basic Structure of the Constitution.

    Minerva Mills, 1980 – The limited amending power itself is part of the Basic Structure.

    Balance Between Fundamental Rights and DPSPs – Parliament cannot give unlimited precedence to one over the other, preserving constitutional harmony.

    Separation of Powers – Parliament cannot encroach upon the independence of the judiciary or the executive-legislative balance. Eg- NJAC

    Federal Structure – Amendment cannot centralize power to the extent of destroying federalism or state autonomy. (S.R. Bommai Judgment)

    I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007) – Even laws under the Ninth Schedule are open to judicial review if they violate Basic Structure.

    Thus, parliament cannot destroy or expand its amending power beyond constitutional limits. It is subject to Basic Structure

    Supremacy of the Constitution

    Republican and democratic form of government

    Secularism

    Federalism

    Judicial Review and Rule of Law

    Separation of Powers

    Limited amending power (Minerva Mills)

    Analysis

    The power of amendment under Article 368 is an instrument to ensure the Constitution’s continuity, and dynamic adaptation, not institutional annihilation. In a democracy governed by the Rule of Law, no organ can arrogate to itself absolute power, for that would negate the very idea of constitutionalism.

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