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  • For effective border area management, discuss the steps required to be taken to deny local support to militants and also suggest ways to manage favourable perception among locals

    Border Management involves securing a nation’s frontiers against unauthorized movement of people and goods while facilitating legitimate trade and commerce.

    Steps to Deny Local Support to Militants

    Neutralizing Overground Workers to prevent “3L” support to terrorists- Logistics, Location (shelter), and Liaison (intelligence)

    Strengthening the Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) to share real-time data between central and state forces to identify local sympathizers.

    Curbing Online Radicalization- Monitoring Telegram and social media pages used for indoctrination.

    Strict Enforcement of UAPA to create a high legal cost for aiding terrorists.

    Monitoring NGOs and Hawala channels that funnel foreign funds to border areas.

    Community Policing- Eg- Project Prahari in Assam.

    Counter-Propaganda- Using local radio and influencers to highlight the personal costs of supporting violence.

    Surrender & Rehabilitation Policy to mainstream misguided youth. Eg- 2024 Revised Surrender Policy in J&K.

    Ways to manage favourable perception among locals

    Army-led goodwill initiatives – Eg- Army Goodwill Schools under Operation Sadbhavana.

    Skill development, entrepreneurship push – Eg- Mission Youth and Himayat

    Social infrastructure development under Operation Sadbhavanaibrant Village program

    Connectivity initiatives for tourism promotion. Eg- Chenab Bridge, and running Vande Bharat trains

    De-radicalisation Centres – Counselling sessions for first-time offenders.

    Targeted Security Approach – Eg- Focus on OGWs and hybrid militants without mass crackdowns.

    Grassroots Democracy- Empowering PRIs to give locals a say in development.

    “Bharat Darshan” Tours- Sponsoring trips for border youth to major Indian cities to foster a sense of national integration.

    Building cooperation and trust ensures the population becomes the “First Line of Defence”

  • ‘Hatred is destructive of a person‘s wisdom and conscience that can poison a nation’s spirit. Do you agree with this view? Justify your answer. (150 words)

    “Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else; you are the one who gets burned.” – The Buddha

    Hatred is a deep-seated negative emotion marked by hostility, prejudice and desire to harm, which clouds moral judgement and rational thought.

    Hatred destroying a person’s wisdom and conscience

    Corruption of character (Virtue Ethics) – prejudice and anger replace virtues like patience and tolerance. Eg- German society under Hitler

    Erosion of practical wisdom and balanced judgement. Eg- Mob violence due to rumours on WhatsApp

    Loss of empathy and compassion. Eg- In the Rwandan Genocide (1994), Tutsis dehumanised as “cockroaches”

    Cognitive bias amplification – Hatred confirms prejudice, not truth. Eg- Conspiracy theories about communities.

    Stoics like Marcus Aurelius argued that hatred is a “sickness of the soul.” Eg- torture of PoW or Concentration camps

    Vindictiveness over Justice- A wise person seeks justice, while a hateful person seeks revenge. Eg- Treaty of Versailles (1919) was driven by French desire for “revenge”

    Violation of Kantian duty – Treating others as means, not ends. Eg- “My Lai Massacre” during Vietnam war.

    Instrumentalisation of reason – Intelligence used to harm, not to heal. Eg- doxxing

    Psychological degradation – Hatred increases anxiety, anger, and stress. Eg- Radicalised individuals like Ajmal Kasab.

    Stagnation of Personal Growth- Hateful person focuses on past grievances rather than on future or finding peace.

    Hatred Poisoning a Nation’s Spirit

    Erosion of Social Capital- A nation’s spirit relies on “Fraternity.” Hatred replaces cooperation with suspicion. Eg- communal riots during elections

    Institutional Decay- When hatred enters the national spirit, institutions also get weaponized. Eg-

    The Normalization of Violence- When hatred is mainstream, violence is seen as a “cleansing” act. Eg- ethnic cleansing of Jews in Nazi Germany

    Weakening of democratic culture. Eg- Labelling critics as anti-national.

    Fragmentation of national identity. Eg- Religion-based or ethnicity-based politics.

    The Post-Truth Nation- propaganda takes over objective truth due to ‘superflous masses’.

    Global reputational damage. Eg- Apartheid regime in South Africa

    The Cycle of Reciprocity- Hatred in one group triggers hatred in another, creating a “Death Spiral.” Eg- Ethnic conflict in Manipur

    Stifling of Creativity and Innovation as hateful spirit is a closed spirit. Eg- “Brain Drain” from 1930s Germany.

    Intergenerational Trauma- Hatred is a legacy that ensures the spirit of the nation remains poisoned for decades. Eg- Partition of India (1947)

    “Darkness cannot drive out darkness; only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate; only love can do that.” – Martin Luther King Jr.

  • The current internet expansion has instilled a different set of cultural values which are in conflict with traditional values. Discuss. (150 words).

    As per ITU, over 6 billion people globally and over 86% of households in India use the internet. This expansion of the internet has acted as a double-edged sword.

    Emergence of New Cultural Norms in Conflict with Traditional Norms

    Individualism vs. Collectivism – Eg- emergence of nuclear families and single parent parent families replacing joint families

    Instant Gratification vs. Patience (Tapas) – Eg- rise in “Speed-Dating” apps and “Swipe Culture” conflicting with traditional marriage systems

    Egalitarianism vs. Seniority – Youth questioning traditional family hierarchies or social structures based on information found online. Eg- rise in inter caste marriages

    Transparency vs. Discretion – Eg- culture of “oversharing” personal lives (Eg- vlogging) conflicts with traditional value of “keeping family matters private”

    Global vs. Ethnic Identity – Eg- dilution of local linguistic dialects and regional folk songs in favor of “standardized” global pop culture.

    Fluid vs. Fixed Identity – fluid “career hopping” encouraged by the internet is seen as “instability” by traditionalists who value life-long commitment.

    Materialism vs. Contentment – constant consumption and luxury displays in conflict with traditional values of simple living and “santosh.” Eg- “FOMO” (Fear of Missing Out) marketing.

    Digital Nomadism vs. Rootedness – weakening of local community bonds due to high mobility among youth.

    Crowd Wisdom vs. Institutional Expertise – Eg- diagnosing health issues via “Dr. Google” or Reddit threads instead of certified doctors

    Moral Relativism vs. Absolute Codes. Eg- rising social tension regarding traditional views on gender roles, and diet.

    Counter-Argument- Internet expansion strengthening traditional values.

    Internet-driven “Wellness Culture” has expanded reach of Yoga and Ayurveda

    Linguistic conservation. Eg- “People’s Linguistic Survey of India” use digital recording to preserve tribal dialects like Santhali or Tulu

    Market Access for Traditional Artisans – Eg- Platforms like Etsy, Okhai, or GoCoop allow Kalamkari artists to sell directly to global markets

    Live Streaming of temple Aartis (like Kashi Vishwanath) allows virtual religious participation.

    Food bloggers and YouTube channels focused on “Village Cooking” have documented rare regional culinary techniques. Eg- Village Food Factory

    Modernizing Traditional Education. Eg- Vedic Math courses on Ed-tech

    Social Media as a Tool for “Cultural Assertion” – Eg- Trends like #SareeTwitter or #DhotiChallenge

    Emerging digital “Sustainability” values align with ancient traditional concepts of minimal living. Eg- “slow fashion” brands like Ka Sha

    The emergence of ‘glocalization’ represents the fusion of internet driven modernity and community-oriented wisdom of tradition.

  • Distinguish between laws and rules. Discuss the role of ethics in formulating them. (150 words).

    While laws and rules serve as the structured framework to regulate conduct and ensure justice, ethics provides the moral foundation.

    “Law is the minimum of morality.” – Georg Jellinek

    Objectives of Laws and Rules

    Maintaining social order and stability.

    Ensuring the safety and security of individuals.

    Promoting fairness and equality.

    Resolving conflicts.

    Protecting the rights of the vulnerable.

    Role of Ethics in Formulating Laws and Rules

    Ethics acts as the “internal monitor” that ensures laws and rules do not become instruments of tyranny.

    Balancing rights and duties of citizens. Eg- reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2)

    Providing a Moral Justification- Eg- the law against theft is rooted in the ethical value of respect for property.

    Upholding Human Dignity- Eg- Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 to eliminate untouchability

    Ensuring Justice as Fairness (Rawls)- Eg- 106th constitutional amendment Act for women reservation in parliament

    Promoting Transparency and accountability- Eg- RTI Act

    The ethical principle of “Non-maleficence” (do no harm) is the basis for environmental laws and safety regulations. Eg- EIA rules

    Professional Integrity- Ethics informs “Codes of Conduct” in professions. Eg- the Hippocratic Oath for doctors

    Social welfare. Eg- MGNREGA guaranteeing employment.

    Smooth functioning of any system depends on the synergy between ethics (to define the good) and laws/rules (to enforce the good).

  • Analyze internal security threats and transborder crimes along Myanmar, Bangladesh and Pakistan borders including Line of Control (LoC). Also discuss the role played by various security forces in this regard

    With 15,106.7 km of land borders, the sanctity of India’s frontiers is the primary shield against unconventional “hybrid” warfare and transnational organized crime.

    Myanmar Border (1,643 km)

    Safe Havens for Insurgent Groups (IIGs)- Groups like ULFA-I and NSCN-K utilize “ungoverned spaces” in Myanmar to train and retreat.

    “Golden Triangle” Narcotics- Myanmar is a global hub for Methamphetamines. Eg- ED raids in Champhai (Mizoram) uncovering a network.

    Precursor Chemical Smuggling- Sending pseudoephedrine from India to Myanmar for drug production.

    Weapon Proliferation- Smuggling of sophisticated Western and Chinese arms from Myanmar’s black markets into Manipur.

    Bangladesh Border (4,096 km)

    Illegal Migration- Movement of undocumented individuals

    Illegal Cattle Smuggling (billion-dollar) – leads to border skirmishes.

    Bangladesh acts as a transit point for high-quality Fake Indian Currency Notes (FICN).

    Human Trafficking- A major route for trafficking women and children for forced labor.

    Radicalization Spillover- groups like Ansarullah Bangla Team (ABT) attempting to establish sleeper cells in West Bengal and Assam.

    Pakistan Border & LoC- The “Hybrid Warfare” Zone (3,323 km)

    Drone-Based Narco-Terrorism in Punjab through Golden Crescent

    Infiltration of “Hybrid” Terrorists- Eg- The April 2025 Pahalgam attack which killed 26 tourists.

    Loitering Munition Attacks to target military infrastructure dueing ‘Op Sindoor’

    Role of OGW – generate pro-terror content, circulate videos and organise protests to delegitimise the state.

    Role Played by Various Security Forces

    India follows the “One Border, One Force” principle to ensure specialized guarding.

    Indian Army (Line of Control & Siachen)

    Mandate- High-intensity combat and maintaining the sanctity of the LoC and LAC.

    Counter-Infiltration through Anti-Infiltration Obstacle System (AIOS) (a multi-layered fence equipped with sensors)

    Siachen Defense- Guards the world’s highest battlefield at heights above 20,000 feet.

    Border Security Force (BSF)

    Guards the International Borders (IB) with Pakistan and Bangladesh.

    Anti-Smuggling Operations- Intercepts narcotics, cattle, and arms smuggling.

    Implements the Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS).

    Anti-Drone Warfare- Operates specialized jammers and “hard-kill” interceptors

    Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)

    Guards the Indo-China Border (LAC) from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh.

    Acts as the first responder for avalanches and landslides in the Himalayan region.

    Assam Rifles (AR)

    Guards the Indo-Myanmar Border and conducts counter-insurgency operations in N-E.

    Responsible for implementing the 2024-25 scrapping of the Free Movement Regime (FMR) and biometric profiling of border-crossers.

    Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)

    Guards the Nepal and Bhutan Borders.

    Acts as the Lead Intelligence Agency (LIA) to identify “Third-Country Nationals”

    Other Steps taken

    Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) for intelligence sharing

    Vibrant Villages Programme

    The integration of modern technology with civil-military cooperation is essential to create “Multi-layered Security Shield.”

  • What do you understand by nanotechnology and how is it helping in health sector?

    Nanotechnology involves designing and manipulating materials, devices, and systems at the nanoscale, typically 100 nanometres or smaller-by controlling atoms and molecules.

    Key Characteristics of Nanotechnology

    High Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio: Material surface area increases drastically at the nanoscale, exponentially accelerating its chemical reactivity.

    Quantum Confinement Effects: Restricting electrons at atomic levels alters a material’s optical, electrical, and magnetic behaviors.

    Altered Physical Strength: Nanomaterials exhibit significantly enhanced structural strength, mechanical durability, and flexibility compared to bulk forms.

    Enhanced Biological Penetration: Extremely small particle sizes allow nanomaterials to easily cross dense biological cellular barriers.

    Tunable Material Properties: Changing particle sizes allows scientists to precisely alter colors, conductivity, and melting points.

    Nanotechnology in the Health Sector

    Targeted Drug Delivery: Nanocarriers, such as liposomes and nanoparticles, can be engineered to deliver drugs directly to diseased cells. Eg- Abraxane– treat breast and pancreatic cancer.

    Nanosensors for Early Diagnosis: Detect biomarkers such as proteins or DNA sequences at extremely low concentrations, enabling early diagnosis of diseases like cancer and Alzheimer’s.

    Advanced Imaging: Nanoparticles like Quantum Dots and iron oxide nanoparticles provide superior contrast for MRI and CT scans.

    Regenerative medicine: Nanoscaffolds mimic the body’s natural cellular framework, promoting cell growth and tissue regeneration to repair damaged organs and tissues.

    Smart Nanobots for Surgery: Though still in evolving stages, Emerging nanobots are being developed for minimally invasive microsurgeries, such as removing arterial blockages.

    Improved Bioavailability of Drugs: Nano-formulations enhance the solubility and absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs by increasing their surface-area-to-volume ratio.

    Antibacterial and Wound Healing: Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used in wound dressings and surgical coatings to prevent infections, including drug-resistant bacteria.

    Gene therapy: Nanoparticles safely deliver DNA or RNA into cells for treating genetic disorders. Eg- Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and Moderna COVID-19 vaccine use lipid nanoparticles.

    Point-of-care diagnostics: Nanotechnology enables “lab-on-a-chip” devices for rapid portable testing, improving healthcare access in rural areas.

    For a country like India, leveraging nanotechnology can be the key to achieving the goal of “Affordable and Accessible Healthcare for All” under the National Health Policy.

  • How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? What are the striking changes in agriculture triggered off by the science-based technologies?

    India’s foodgrains production has surged from 50.8 million tons in 1950-51 to over 357 million tons in 2025. Science has played an important role in this transformation.

    Science Interwoven Deeply With Our Lives

    Healthcare – Vaccines, antibiotics, diagnostics (RT-PCR) have improved life expectancy from 62 in 1990 to 73 in 2025.

    Communication & Connectivity – Internet, smartphones, satellites have transformed education, governance, and commerce. Eg- PM e-Vidya

    Transport – Electric vehicles, GPS, high-speed transport have increased mobility. Eg- Vande Bharat

    Energy Infrastructure – Renewables, smart grids etc shape modern living standards.

    Daily Convenience – Refrigeration, water purification, digital payments, and sensor-based devices ease everyday life.

    Disaster Management – Weather forecasting, early-warning systems save lives during cyclones and floods.

    e-Governance has improved ease of access for citizens. Eg- m-Passport Seva

    Striking Changes in Agriculture Triggered by Science-Based Technologies

    Green Revolution HYVs increased wheat yields from 12 MT (1960s) to 55 MT (1980s).

    Biotechnology & Genetics – Bt cotton reduced pesticide use by 40-60%.

    Precision Farming & Sensors – Use of drones, IoT soil sensors, GIS mapping improves fertilizer and water efficiency.

    Micro-Irrigation – Drip & sprinkler systems increase water-use efficiency by 40-70%.

    Mechanization – Harvesters, seed drills, transplanters reduce labour cost and increase timeliness of operations.

    Climate-Smart Agriculture – Drought-/flood-tolerant seeds reduce climate risk. Eg- Swarna Sub-1 rice

    Post-Harvest & Storage Technologies – Cold chains, ripening chambers, packhouses reduce losses and enable access to distant markets.

    Digital Agriculture – e-NAM, agritech platforms, Kisan drones improve market access and real-time advisory.

    Soil & Water Management Tools – Soil health cards, nano-urea, and microbial biofertilisers improve soil fertility.

    When science meets scale, when innovation becomes inclusive, when technology drives transformation, the foundation for great achievements is laid – PM Modi

  • COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic.

    The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, emerged as an unprecedented global health emergency. Beyond being a mere medical crisis, it disrupted human mobility, governance, economies, and social structures on a scale not witnessed since the 1918 Influenza pandemic.

    Unprecedented Devastation Worldwide

    Estimated 22.1 million excess deaths (WHO).

    Life Expectancy Reversal: reduced global life expectancy by 1.8 years between 2019 and 2021.

    Healthcare Collapse: Routine medical services were severely crippled.

    Lockdowns triggered the worst global economic downturn since the Great Depression.

    Educational Disruption for over 1.6 billion learners globally and widening the digital divide.

    Role of Technology in Pandemic Management

    Digital Surveillance and Contact Tracing: Bluetooth- and GPS-based apps enabled real-time tracking and containment of infection clusters. Eg- Aarogya Setu.

    Vaccine Development and Genomic Sequencing: Eg- Moderna Vaccine developed within 11 months.

    Digital Vaccination Infrastructure: Cloud-based platforms streamlined vaccine registration, scheduling, and certification. Eg- India’s CoWIN managed over 2.2 billion vaccine doses.

    AI in Diagnostics and Triage: Machine learning tools enabled rapid COVID-19 detection through CT scans and X-rays. Eg- Baidu deployed AI thermal screening systems.

    Telemedicine and Virtual Healthcare: Telehealth reduced hospital burden through remote consultations and home-based care. Eg- India’s eSanjeevani.

    Robotics and Autonomous Systems: Robots and drones minimized frontline exposure in infectious zones. Eg- ICMR’s i-DRONE project.

    3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing: Eg- 3D-printed face shields and ventilator valves.

    Blockchain in Supply Chains: Eg- Blockchain-monitored cold-chain logistics for mRNA vaccines.

    Remote Collaboration Platforms: Cloud communication tools sustained governance, education, and economic activity. Eg- Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Webex.

    Limitations of Technology in the Management of the Pandemic

    Deepening Digital Divide: Lack of smartphone and internet access excluded impoverished populations from receiving digital welfare.

    Widespread Digital Misinformation: Eg: viral forward messages promoting unverified chemical consumption as a coronavirus cure.

    Data Privacy Breaches: Rapid deployment of tracing applications raised serious concerns regarding unauthorized surveillance and data leakages.

    Supply Chain Bottlenecks: Eg: Global shortages of semiconductor chips crippling production of critical high-end hospital ventilators.

    Fragmented Trans-National Data Silos: Eg: Delays in sharing early clinical raw data hindering global strain mutation tracking.

    Way Forward

    Use of robotics & telemedicine on a broader scale to achieve last mile delivery.

    Following ONE HEALTH approach to develop preventive cure.

    Increase R&D spending in the health sector to strengthen diagnosis & research with the help of the private sector.

    The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted that while biological threats can bring human civilization to a sudden halt, modern technology serves as a vital tool for resilience.

  • What are the determinants of left-wing extremism in Eastern part of India? What strategy should Government of India, civil administration and security forces adopt to counter the threat in the affected areas?

    LWE refers to violent insurgency driven by Maoist or Naxalite ideologies, with an objective of overthrowing the government and establishing a communist society.

    Determinants of Left-Wing Extremism in Eastern India

    Maoist ideology of armed class struggle, anti-state revolution, and redistribution of resources appeals to sections alienated by inequality and exclusion. Eg- narrative of a “people’s war.”

    Land Displacement – Eg- Mining-induced displacement in Jharkhand’s coal belt (Ramgarh, Hazaribagh).

    Poor implementation of FRA, 2006, and PESA. Eg- Nearly 15% of forest and community land claims under the FRA are pending.

    Historical Socio-Economic Deprivation– Eg- LWE districts like Malkangiri, Sukma have some of the lowest HDI indicators.

    Unemployment & Lack of Livelihood Options- Eg- Jharkhand’s rural districts have among the highest youth unemployment in Eastern India.

    Governance Deficit – Eg- Large parts of Southern Bastar lacked road connectivity until recent years.

    Favourable Terrain – Eg- Dandakaranya region offers natural hideouts and logistical advantages for guerrilla warfare.

    Porous and forested borders between Chhattisgarh-Jharkhand-Odisha-Maharashtra allow safe movement and sanctuary for cadres.

    Ineffective Policing & Security Gaps – Poor training, lack of mobility, and limited intelligence in forest interiors.

    Parallel Governance – Maoists run jan adalats, levy taxes, provide quick dispute resolution-gaining perceived legitimacy in ungoverned spaces.

    Strategy to Counter LWE in Affected Regions

    Government of India

    Implement the “National Policy and Action Plan (2015)” in timely manner

    Accelerate Development – Road Requirement Plan (RRP-I), mobile towers, banking, health centres, PDS reforms in LWE belts.

    Strengthening PESA –

    real-time digital dashboards for fund utilization to Gram Sabhas

    “Bottom-Up” planning model – from “state imposition” to “participatory development”

    Economic development

    “Forest-to-Market” Value Chain development through Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs)

    Promotion of Tribal-Start-up Ecosystem in food processing – Eg- export of products like Mahua and wild honey

    Civil Administration strategy

    “The only way to end insurgency is to win the hearts and minds of people through inclusive governance.” – Rajnath Singh

    Transparent and Participatory Mining & Resource Management- Eg- share of mineral royalties to local communities through the DMF Funds

    Technology for Governance – Use GIS mapping, drones, and e-governance platforms for service delivery and monitoring.

    Build Trust with Communities – Dialogue-based approach through “administration-public interface programmes”. Eg- Janta Darbars for grievance redressal

    Security Forces Strategy

    Strengthen Intelligence & Tech-Enabled Policing – Use of drones, satellite mapping, GPS-based tracking, communication intercept tools.

    Capacity building – Eg- fortified police stations, all-terrain vehicles for deep forest movement.

    Inter-State Coordination – Coordination between Chhattisgarh-Odisha-Jharkhand-Maharashtra in tri-junction zones.

    Community Policing – Initiatives like Jan Maitri, sports outreach, and anti-propaganda programmes.

    Progress anchored in justice and inclusion is the best antidote to extremism.

  • What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched by the Government of India for water conservation and water security?

    Jal Shakti Abhiyan is a time-bound, mission-mode campaign launched in 2019 to promote water conservation, recharge, and water security in stressed districts.

    Salient Features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA)

    Targets blocks with critical or over-exploited groundwater across India, prioritising arid and semi-arid regions.

    Five Key Intervention Areas

    Water Conservation & Rainwater Harvesting

    Renovation of Traditional & Existing Water Bodies

    Reuse & Recharge of Borewells/Watershed Structures

    Watershed Development

    Intensive Afforestation

    Convergence of Multiple Departments – Brings together Rural Development, Water Resources, Agriculture, Forest, Urban Development, Panchayati Raj under a unified water conservation plan.

    Block-Level Water Conservation Plans and a scientific water budget for area-specific interventions.

    Central nodal officers monitor implementation through field visits and performance reviews.

    Jan Andolan – Engages panchayats, SHGs, NGOs, youth groups, schools, and citizens for mass awareness and behavioural change.

    Integration With MGNREGA & PMKSY for creation of check-dams, percolation tanks, ponds, trenches, recharge pits etc.

    Urban Water Conservation Measures (JSA – 2021 onwards)

    Ensuring mandatory Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) as per Model Building By-Law (MBBL) 2016.

    reuse of treated wastewater,

    Setting Up RWH Cells in Urban Local Bodies

    “Catch the Rain – Where it Falls, When it Falls” campaign

    Its integrated approach has strengthened water conservation practices and laid the groundwork for long-term water security.

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