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  • Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudburst in the context of the Indian subcontinent. Discuss two recent examples.

    IMD defines cloudburst as an extreme weather event involving very high-intensity rainfall (often >100 mm/hour) over a small geographical area (20-30 sq. km.) within a short duration.

    Mechanism of Cloudburst

    Moist air masses are forced to rise abruptly when they encounter steep mountain slopes.

    Rapid ascent causes condensation and release of latent heat, intensifying convection.

    Strong Convective Clouds (Cumulonimbus) up to 12-15 km.

    Moisture Supply from Monsoon Systems enhances instability.

    When updrafts weaken, large volumes of accumulated rainwater are released at once, causing cloudburst-like rainfall.

    Occurrence of cloudburst in the Indian Subcontinent

    Himalayan and Western Ghat Topography – Steep slopes promote rapid vertical uplift.

    Monsoon Dynamics – High atmospheric moisture during June-September.

    Climate Change – Rising temperatures increase atmospheric moisture-holding capacity. Eg- every 1°C rise lets air hold ~7% more moisture.

    Land-Use Changes – Deforestation, slope cutting, and urbanisation increase runoff and disaster impact.

    2 recent examples

    Cloudburst in Uttarakhand in 2025 – Chamoli, Rudraprayag, Tehri, and Bageshwar districts affected

    Himachal Pradesh Cloudbursts in 2025 – affectedKullu, Mandi, Shimla districts. Triggered flash floods and massive landslides. Losses at about Rs 4,300 crore and nearly 380 deaths

    Mitigation measures

    Structural

    Engineering solutions – Retaining walls, slope drainage, rock bolting, geo-textiles,

    Nature based solutions – Afforestation in himalaya

    Non-Structural

    Expansion of multi-hazard insurance

    Disaster resilient urban planning (Mishra committee on Joshimath crisis)

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

  • What are the major challenges of Public Distribution System (PDS) in India? How can it be made effective and transparent ?

    The PDS (started in 1960s) is a government-run food security mechanism that provides subsidised foodgrains to eligible households through a network of Fair Price Shops.

    Major challenges of the PDS

    Weak supply chain management – Storage Losses due to poor warehousing and handling. Eg- 40% of the food wasted (1.5 lakh crore or 1% of the GDP)

    Open ended procurement leads to overflowing of FCI godowns

    Diversion – Eg- 28% of allocated foodgrains fail to reach beneficiaries as per HCES 2022-23.

    Inclusion and exclusion errors due to faulty beneficiary identification.

    Corruption and ghost beneficiaries – Over 47 million bogus ration cards cancelled between 2013-2021

    Corruption at Fair Price Shops (FPS) – Issues of under-weighing, overcharging etc

    Fiscal Burden – Food subsidy budget @ 2.1 lakh cr in 2025-26

    PDS is cereal-centric, ignoring dietary diversity. Leads to triple burden of malnutrition – undernutrition, obesity, micronutrient deficiency.

    Technology issues – Internet failure, biometric mismatch and device malfunction under e-PoS / Aadhaar authentication.

    Way Forward

    Shanta Kumar Committee Recommendations on Revamping of PDS

    Direct Procurement by States

    Private Sector Involvement in procurement, storage, and distribution

    Diversify the food basket – Include millets, pulses, edible oil and iodised salt for nutritional security.

    Strengthen grievance redressal – Set up toll-free helplines, social audits and citizen charters at FPS level.

    Community monitoring – Involve self-help groups, local bodies and civil society in supervision.

    Periodic updating and verification of ration cards.

    Universal PDS similar to Tamil Nadu’s model.

    Optimise buffer stock norms to reduce food grain wastage.

    The PDS remains a vital tool for India’s food security and realise SDG 1,2,3,and 12

  • What are the main bottlenecks in upstream and downstream process of marketing of agricultural products in India ?

    Agricultural marketing refers to the entire process involved in moving farm produce from the farmer to the final consumer. In India, this system faces bottlenecks at both upstream (farm-level) and downstream (market-to-consumer) stages.

    Fragmented Landholdings – 86% small and marginal farmers with low production volumes make aggregation difficult.

    Poor First-Mile Connectivity – About 25% rural habitations lack pucca road connectivity – increases spoilage of perishables.

    Lack of On-Farm Storage leads to distress sales. Eg- 166 MMT storage capacity gap (FAO)

    Inadequate Primary Processing – Minimal grading, sorting, cleaning, and drying at the farm level

    High Post-Harvest Losses – Losses of 6-18% in fruits & vegetables due to poor handling.

    Weak Farmer Institutions – FPO/cooperatives have limited capacity for aggregation and marketing

    Limited Access to Information – Farmers lack real-time data on prices, demand and arrivals.

    High Input & Transport Costs makes farm-to-mandi movement expensive. Eg- logistics cost is 14% of GDP

    Demand and supply gap due to Cobweb Phenomenon (Economic Survey) – Crop production depends on prices in previous periods rather than present demand

    63% of agricultural households sold their crops to local markets and only 7.2% sold to APMCs.

    APMC operating in monopolised silos limit free inter-state movement and competition. Eg- Licensing barriers and cartelisation

    Dominance of Intermediaries leads to low price realisation. Eg- Farmers get only 25-30% of final price in perishables.

    Inadequate Market Infrastructure – Mandis lack grading, sorting, storage, and drying yards. Only 10% of mandis meet required norms (Dalwai Committee).

    Low Digital Integration – Only about 1500 mandis integrated with e-NAM (2024).

    Quality & SPS Compliance Gaps – Inadequate testing infrastructure impacts domestic sales and exports. Eg- EU rejecting Mango consignment

    Organised retail remains concentrated in metro and Tier-1 cities, with limited rural coverage

    Low investment – Private investment <1% Agri-GDP.

    Way Forward

    Strengthening FPOs to enhance collective bargaining and direct market access for farmers. Eg- Sahyadri FPO in Maharashtra – increased incomes by 30%

    Cold-Chain-as-a-Service (CCaaS) – IoT-based cold storage + logistics integration to reduce post-harvest losses

    MSP 2.0 based on 3 D’s – Decentralisation, Diversification and Digital Procurement.

    Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers near farm gates.

    Legal Reforms – Eg- adoption Model contract farming Act by states

    Strengthening supply chain management is key to ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

    Agriculture Inputs

  • What is Integrated Farming System ? How is it helpful to small and marginal farmers in India ?

    Integrated farming system refers to the integration of multiple components of agriculture in a single farm unit to enhance productivity, sustainability and resilience while optimising resource use.

    Integrated Farming System (IFS)

    Multi-enterprise model: crop farming + dairy + poultry + fisheries + horticulture + composting + agroforestry.

    Agro Ecological approach – Biodiversity Conservation

    Waste-to-wealth through nutrient and energy recycling.

    Closed nutrient loop – Minimises external inputs

    System-based planning: farm as an ecosystem

    Benefits of IFS for small and marginal farmers

    Economic Benefits

    Lower input cost: Use of on-farm manure, biogas slurry and feed reduces market dependency.

    Income Security – Multiple income sources reduce climate and market vulnerability. Eg- crop loss can be offset by milk/poultry/fish income.

    Doubling Farmers income – Eg- paddy cultivation + fish farming + poultry in Tamil Nadu saw income rise by over 100%. (ICAR study)

    Better credit worthiness: Regular income improves repayment capacity and access to formal finance.

    Livelihood & Social Security

    Year-round employment: Continuous work across livestock, cropping, fisheries, and horticulture.

    Family labour utilisation: Eg- women and elderly in backyard poultry, dairy and nurseries

    Nutrition security: Access to milk, eggs, vegetables, fruits and fish

    Stable livelihood prevents rural-urban distress migration.

    Women empowerment: Dairy, poultry and SHGs bring direct income to rural women.

    Environmental Benefits

    Improves soil health and carbon content: Organic manure + crop rotation + green manure.

    Water efficiency: Eg- Pond-field-livestock integration allows reuse of water and nutrients.

    Enhanced Biodiversity by offering homes for a variety of plant and animal species. Eg- Agroforestry

    Reduces pollution: Minimizes chemical runoff and stubble burning through recycling.

    Challenges in IFS

    Small and Marginal Land Holdings (86%) restricts integration of enterprises like ponds or livestock.

    High Initial Investment requirement in biogas units, sheds and fish ponds require capital.

    Limited Knowledge & Skills at village level – IFS demands multi-disciplinary expertise.

    Lack of Market Linkages and assured procurement channels for surplus milk, fish, vegetables

    Policy Gaps – Schemes operate in silos rather than landscape-based integrated planning.

    Way Forward

    Promote climate and region-wise IFS models (dryland, coastal, hill).

    Financial Support – low-interest loans + integrated crop-livestock insurance.

    Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers

    Extension Support through Krishi Sakhis, FPOs and Agri-Startups for training and backward-forward linkages.

    Raising R&D Investment to 1% of GDP

    Budget 2025-26 emphasised Agriculture as the ‘first engine’ for India’s development journey. IFS can be the backbone of this journey.

  • Elaborate the scope and significance of the food processing industry in India

    India’s food processing sector is projected to grow from $307 billion (2023) to $700 billion by 2030, driven by rising demand, technological change, and strong policy support.

    Scope of the Food Processing Industry in India

    Large agricultural base

    India is the world’s largest producer of milk, spices, pulses, millets,

    Wide product spectrum – Includes dairy, fruits & vegetables, meat, fisheries, beverages, ready-to-eat (RTE), and organic foods.

    Lifestyle Shift – 65% of Indians under 35, rising incomes, urbanization & busy lifestyles have boosted demand for ready-to-eat & processed foods.

    Rapid growth in Organised retail and “shopping mall culture”– better supply chain management. Eg- D-mart

    Export potential – India exports processed foods to 200+ countries

    Nearly 70% of food processing units operate in the unorganised MSME sector – generate rural employment and entrepreneurship.

    Significance of the Food Processing Industry

    Demand for horticulture, poultry, fisheries, spices, and nutri-cereals supports diversification away from rice-wheat systems.

    Strengthens food security – Processing improves food availability, safety, nutrient retention and supports a resilient supply chain.

    Reduces post-harvest losses (15-20% of perishable losses annually) – processing improves shelf life and reduces wastage.

    Doubling farmer’s income – Value addition ensures better price realisation.

    Investment – Eg- Recent,World Food India attractedinvestment by global, domestic giants like Coca-Cola

    Boosts employment generation – Food processing creates one of the highest employment multipliers, across harvesting, sorting, packaging, and logistics.

    Drives industrialisation of rural economy – Mega Food Parks, agro-processing clusters, and cold chains stimulate local industry and logistics networks.

    Foreign exchange earnings through exports improve India’s trade balance and economic growth.

    As India moves forward under the Make in India vision, the food processing industry will continue to be a key driver of economic growth, ensuring food security, quality, and global competitiveness.

  • Why is Public Private Partnership (PPP) required in infrastructural projects? Examine the role of PPP model in the redevelopment of Railway Stations in India.

    ADB describes PPP as “a cooperative venture between the public and private sectors, built on the expertise of each partner, that best meets clearly defined public needs through the appropriate allocation of resources, risks, and rewards.”

    Importance of PPP in Infrastructure Projects

    Investment – NIP requires Rs 111 lakh crore. PPP mobilises private capital, reducing fiscal pressure on the government.

    Efficiency – Private players bring managerial expertise, technological upgrades, and project management capabilities

    Risk Sharing between government and private players improves project viability.

    Cost Reduction – performance-based contracts, ensures asset quality, lower maintenance costs, and better service delivery.

    Faster Project Execution by reducing bureaucratic procedures. Eg- Delhi Metro

    Revenue Generation for government – Eg- Toll, commercial leasing, advertisements

    Role of PPP Model in Redevelopment of Railway Stations in India

    Station Redevelopment as multimodal commercial hubs. Eg- Gandhinagar Capital Station

    Monetisation of railway land parcels through commercial development. Eg- Habibganj (Rani Kamlapati) Station, Bhopal

    Improved Passenger Amenities with better maintenance, cleanliness and world class infrastructure. Eg- Ayodhya Railway Station

    Revenue generation for Railways via lease rights and development rights.

    Faster Implementation through EPC-PPP Mix, ensuring speed + financial viability.

    Catalyst for Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)- Redeveloped stations become urban nodes supporting business, tourism, and last-mile connectivity.

    Challenges in PPP for Railway Station Redevelopment

    Land acquisition delays due to overlapping jurisdictions, unclear titles, and restrictions on commercial use.

    Uncertain Demand & Revenue Realisation

    High Capital Requirement & Long Gestation period deter private players.

    Regulatory Issues- poor coordination between railway authorities, urban local bodies, and concessionaires.

    Rigid Contract Structures and concession agreements – lead to Litigation

    Way Forward

    Transparent Model Concession Agreements with clear risk allocation and dispute mechanisms.

    Stronger Institutional Capacity in Indian Railways for PPP management.

    Hybrid PPP Models – EPC for core assets + PPP for commercial components

    Single-window clearances for faster approvals.

    Implementation of VIjay Kelkar Committee recommendations on PPP can transform railways into modern, inclusive, multimodal transport hubs

  • Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030 ? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.

    Under panchamrit Targets at COP26, India committed to achieving 50 percent of its installed electricity capacity from non-fossil (clean and renewable) sources by 2030.

    Progress towards 50% energy needs from renewables – Justification

    Non-fossil capacity reached around 50% of installed capacity in 2025, ahead of the 2030 deadline.

    India stands 4th globally in Renewable Energy Installed Capacity, 4th in Wind Power capacity and 3rd in Solar Power capacity (as per IRENA RE Statistics 2025).

    India focuses on five key priorities to achieve its 2030 target of 500 GW non-fossil capacity.

    Better Contracts: Long-term power deals to attract investors.

    Stronger Grids: Modern grids and battery storage for steady power supply.

    Make in India: Boosting local production of solar panels and wind turbines.

    Smart Land Use: Using land wisely with floating solar and solar on farms.

    Easy Financing: Making funds available to support clean energy projects.

    Government efforts

    National Solar Mission – Expansion of solar capacity at utility and rooftop level.

    PM-KUSUM – Solarisation of agricultural pumps and rural feeders.

    National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy – Maximises land and grid utilisation.

    PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana – Accelerates residential rooftop solar.

    Institutional mechanisms

    Green Grids Initiative under OSOWOG

    BEE and PAT Scheme – Promote energy efficiency.

    Economic incentives

    PLI Scheme for Solar PV Modules and Batteries

    Viability Gap Funding and Capital Subsidies

    Green bonds for clean energy projects.

    Global efforts and partnerships

    Technology transfer and funding through ISA, IBSA, G20

    Participation in Just Energy Transition Partnerships (JETP) and multilateral climate funds.

    Challenges

    Policy inconsistency (continued approval of coal plants) weakens investor confidence in renewables.

    Financial Challenges

    India needs nearly

    High upfront capital costs and slow RoI discourage private investors.

    Limited availability of low-cost green finance for small and medium developers.

    Intermittency issue and limited energy storage solutions.

    Grid integration problems due to weak transmission and distribution.

    Import Dependence. Eg- China supplied ~56% of India’s solar cells in FY2024. 100% import-dependent for lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, copper.

    Skilled manpower shortage in advanced RE technologies.

    Land & Environmental Constraints – Eg- Sillahalla Hydro Project (Tamil Nadu) raised concerns over biodiversity loss and displacement.

    E-Waste – No comprehensive solar recycling policy or sufficient recycling infrastructure

    Delayed payments and PPA renegotiations/cancellations coupled with weak financial capacity of DISCOMS impact market stability

    How shifting subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables will help

    Level playing field – Removing fossil-fuel subsidies makes RE more competitive and attractive.

    Lower cost of clean energy – Redirected subsidies can reduce tariffs of solar and wind

    Crowding in private investment due to higher returns and lower risk

    Savings can be used for battery storage, smart grids, green corridors and EV charging networks.

    Reduced fossil fuel demand due to higher prices

    Global leadership – Strengthens India’s position in climate negotiations and green diplomacy.

    Way Forward

    Optimize Land and Water Resources – Eg- Omkareshwar Floating Solar Park.

    Develop Renewable Energy Clusters with single-window clearances and fiscal incentives.

    Leverage Emerging Technologies – Eg- blockchain-based P2P renewable energy trading

    Expand Renewable Infrastructure – Scale rooftop solar, microgrids and solar pumps for rural electrification and off-grid solutions.

    Circular Waste-to-Energy Parks using anaerobic digestion, gasification and pyrolysis. Eg- Jamnagar

    India’s energy transition can help realise SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure).

  • Clean energy is the order of the day. Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics.

    Climate change has emerged as a global security and geopolitical concern. India, 3rd-largest energy consumer, has transitioned from a “climate obstructionist” to a “climate leader and solution provider”

    Clean Energy is the Order of the Day

    Combating Climate Change – Transition to renewables

    Social Benefits – women’s health. (Ujjwala Scheme)

    Economic Benefits – lowering Current Account Deficit (CAD).

    India’s role as a “Vishwaguru of sustainability”

    Geopolitics of Climate Change

    Oil geopolitics (Middle East)

    China’s monopoly in critical minerals (over 90%)

    Green tariffs and carbon taxes. Eg- EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

    North-South Divide and Climate Justice Diplomacy

    Climate-linked Geoeconomics – Eg- G20 Green Development Pact (2023)

    Climate and Security Interlinkages – Climate-induced disasters

    Emerging ‘Energy Identity Politics’

    EU as a “Green Regulatory Power.”

    China as “Green Manufacturing Hub.”

    India as a “Responsible Global South Leader.”

    India’s Changing Policy Towards Climate Change in Various International Fora

    Early Phase -Defensive Stance (Pre-2010)

    Advocated equity and right to development under Kyoto Protocol (1997).

    Opposed binding emission targets for developing countries.

    Supported the principle of CBDR and respective capabilities.

    Shift from defensive to constructive negotiation (2010-2015)

    Copenhagen (2009) & Cancún (2010): Voluntary emission intensity reduction (20-25% by 2020).

    Formation of BASIC bloc (Brazil, South Africa, India, China) to represent emerging economies.

    Leadership Phase (Post-2015 -Present)

    Paris Agreement (2015): India’s NDCs –

    Reduce emission intensity by 33-35% by 2030.

    Achieve 40% non-fossil fuel-based power capacity.

    Create carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes CO₂ through afforestation.

    COP-26 (Glasgow, 2021): Announced “Panchamrit” commitments -including Net Zero by 2070 and 50% energy capacity from renewables.

    UNFCCC (COP28): Leading Global South demand for loss and damage fund and fair carbon markets.

    Global South Leadership – Eg- FIPIC (Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation)

    International Solar Alliance (ISA, 2015): Jointly launched with France to mobilize solar adoption across 100+ countries.

    Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI, 2019): Focus on climate-resilient infrastructure in developing nations.

    G20 Presidency (2023): Advocated Green Development Pact and Just Energy Transition for Global South.

    Quad Climate Group: Promoting clean hydrogen, green shipping, and resilient supply chains.

    BRICS & SCO: Advocates equitable climate finance, green technology transfer, and multipolar environmental governance.

    India’s other efforts towards climate change and Clean energy

    National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

    National Solar Mission (280 GW solar capacity by 2030)

    National Green Hydrogen Mission (5 MMT by 2030)

    One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG)

    IPEF (Indo-Pacific Economic Framework): Includes clean energy, decarbonisation.

    As per Dhanasree Jayaram (Climate Diplomacy and Emerging Economies) India has evolved from a ‘naysayer’ to a ‘responsible’ player in Climate Diplomacy.

  • The Gati-Shakti Yojana needs meticulous coordination between the government and the private sector to achieve the goal of connectivity. Discuss.

    The PM Gati Shakti National Master Plan (2021) aims to transform India’s infrastructure landscape through integrated, multimodal connectivity across roads, railways, ports, airports, and logistics.

    Six pillars of Gati Shakti – a transformative approach for economic growth:

    Analytical: GIS-based, helps identify gaps and assets.

    Dynamic: Updated regularly.

    Prioritization: Focused and need-based planning.

    Comprehensive: Covers 16 ministries under an integrated approach.

    Synchronization: Digital platform enabling coordination.

    Optimization: Better resource and asset utilization.

    Need for Coordination between Government and Private Sector

    Improved Quality and Efficiency – Public sector ensures regulatory and policy stability, while the private sector ensures better project management and minimizes cost and time overruns.

    Exchange of Expertise and Competence – Eg- PPPs in Sagarmala and Bharatmala projects.

    Augmenting Fiscal Capacity – Private investment supplements limited public capital.

    Fostering Entrepreneurship and Innovation – Encourages startups in logistics (e.g., Rivigo, Delhivery) leveraging digital platforms.

    Synergies with National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP) – Monetised assets create fiscal space for new projects under Gati Shakti.

    Efficient Dispute Resolution – Joint mechanisms improve grievance handling and PPP trust.

    Challenges in Coordination

    Institutional Overlaps among ministries.

    Regulatory Uncertainty deters long-term private investments.

    Land Acquisition and Environmental Clearances remain bottlenecks.

    Data-Sharing Gaps and silo mentality

    Way Forward

    Single-Window Digital Interface

    Standardize risk-sharing frameworks under PPP.

    Empower the Network Planning Group (NPG) for inter-ministerial coordination.

    “Connectivity is the new currency of competitiveness.” – NITI Aayog. Gati Shakti Yojana will help propel the Indian economy to a $5 trillion level and beyond in “Amrit Kaal.”

  • Is inclusive growth possible under market economy? State the significance of financial inclusion in achieving economic growth in India.

    As per OECD, inclusive growth is economic growth distributed fairly across society and creates opportunities for all. A market economy drives efficiency and innovation, but without corrective policies it can widen inequalities.

    Inclusive Growth under Market Economy

    Efficient Resource Allocation- improve productivity, reduce costs, and expand economic opportunities.

    Market economies enable entrepreneurship, MSME growth and innovation-driven jobs. Eg- Indian start-up ecosystem.

    State as an Enabler- Government gets resources to invest in public goods.

    Property rights, contract enforcement and regulatory frameworks ensure fairness.

    Technological development enabling inclusive development – Eg- DBT.

    Challenges to Inclusive Growth under a Market Economy

    Rising inequality– Eg- the top 1% control 40% of net personal wealth.

    Regional disparities due to unequal investment and infrastructure. Eg- BIMARU States

    Jobless growth – Service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs less than 30% workforce

    Weak social protection for informal workers (over 85% of India’s workforce).

    Market failures in public goods. Eg- Digital Apartheid in Education

    Significance of Financial Inclusion in Achieving Economic Growth in India

    Enhanced credit access for MSMEs, SHGs – boosts investment and employment. Eg. PM MUDRA has sanctioned over since inception.

    Greater savings through Jan Dhan accounts (53 crore accounts) ensures financial stability

    Formalisation of the economy via UPI, GSTN, Aadhaar – wider tax base and better compliance.

    Poverty reduction through targeted DBT, eliminating leakages and improving consumption.

    Women’s economic empowerment through SHG-bank linkage, Stand-Up India, digital microcredit – raises household productivity.

    Rural economic growth through Kisan Credit Cards, PM-Kisan and digital banking in villages.

    Improved risk management via insurance (PMJJBY, PMSBY) and pensions (PM-SYM) – stabilises vulnerable households.

    Boost to digital economy with UPI handling over – strengthens service sector growth.

    Inclusive growth under a market economy is possible when markets are balanced with public investment, regulation and financial inclusion.

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