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  • Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.

    Articles 153-167 (Part VI) deal with the State Executive, and the Governor acts as the Chief Executive Head of the State. Under Article 213, the Governor has the power to promulgate ordinances.

    Legislative Powers-

    Summoning and Proroguing Houses (Article 174)

    Article 200 – Giving assent to the Bills

    Article 175- Addresses the first session of the State Legislature after each general election.

    Appoints the Speaker of the House

    Reservation of Bills for President’s Consideration (Article 201)

    Nominates one-sixth members of the Legislative Council (if it exists).

    Ordinance-Making Power (Article 213)

    Essential Conditions for Exercise of Legislative Powers by the Governor

    Legislature Not in Session – Ordinance can be issued only when both Houses (or the sole House) of the State Legislature are not in session.

    Immediate Need – The Governor must be satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary to take immediate legislative action.

    Legislative Competence – The ordinance can only be issued on a subject within the State Legislature’s competence under State or Concurrent Lists.

    Presidential Assent (Proviso to Article 213(1)) – Required if-

    The Bill would need the President’s previous sanction; or

    The law conflicts with any Parliamentary law; or

    It covers subjects where Parliament has overriding powers.

    Temporary Nature – The ordinance must be laid before the Legislature and will cease to operate six weeks after its reassembly, unless replaced by an Act.

    Legality of Re-promulgation of Ordinances

    Judicial Precedents

    D.C. Wadhwa v. State of Bihar (1987) – Re-promulgation of ordinances without legislative approval was termed as a “fraud on the Constitution”. SC has held that, An ordinance can be challenged if it-

    Constitutes colorable legislation;

    Violates Fundamental Rights;

    Contravenes constitutional provisions (e.g., Article 301); or

    Has unconstitutional retrospective effect.

    Krishna Kumar Singh v. State of Bihar (2017) – Placing an ordinance before the Legislature is mandatory. Re-promulgation without fresh justification is invalid and violates legislative supremacy.

    R.C. Cooper case (1970) – Judicial review permissible if there is no genuine requirement of immediate action.

    A.K. Roy v. Union of India (1982)- The Supreme Court held that an ordinance cannot substitute parliamentary legislation and must be used only in cases of extreme urgency or unforeseen emergency.

    Constitutional and Democratic Implications

    Re-promulgation violates the “3D principle” – Debate, Discussion, Deliberation.

    It converts an emergency power into a routine legislative tool, eroding separation of powers.

    Failure to place an ordinance before the Legislature constitutes an “abuse of power” and fraud on the Constitution.

    Way Forward

    Mandatory Legislative Review within a fixed timeframe.

    Transparency in Justification – The Governor’s satisfaction for issuing an ordinance should be recorded in writing and made public.

    Adherence to Constitutional Morality – Governors must act within the spirit of the Constitution, using ordinance powers only in genuine emergencies.

    The ordinance power of the Governor is a tool of urgency, not convenience. As Soli Sorabjee observed, Governors can be a “driving force for democracy” only when they respect the principles of separation of powers and constitutional propriety.

  • While the national political parties in India favour centralisation, the regional parties are in favour of State autonomy. Comment.

    According to Edmund Burke, “Political parties are a group of people sharing common ideology and coming together for the pursuit of common interest.” In India’s quasi-federal system, political orientation of parties influences the federal balance.

    National Political Parties – Tilt Towards Centralisation

    Political Reasons

    Ideological focus on unity and integrity – Eg- Emphasis on “One Nation” narrative

    National security concerns – Strong Centre seen as vital for sovereignty. Eg- AFSPA

    High-command party culture – Central leaders dominate over state units.

    Uniform electoral strategy – Centralised messaging ensures consistency.

    Institutional Reasons

    Constitutional centralism – Support for Centre’s powers under Articles 249, 356, and 352.

    Governor’s role – Used as a central instrument in state politics.

    Economic Reasons

    Fiscal centralisation – Centre controls major taxes and revenue flows.

    Centralised planning legacy – Planning Commission model favoured top-down control.

    Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) – Used for visibility and control (e.g., PM-KISAN).

    Uniform economic policy – Eg- GST.

    Social & Cultural Reasons

    Nation-building agenda – Eg- Ek Bharat, Sreshtha Bharat

    Integration of diversity – Central schemes for social cohesion and inclusion. Eg- One Nation, One Ration Card

    Promotion of national language/symbols – Eg- Three Language Formula

    Regional Political Parties – Favour State Autonomy

    Political Reasons

    Rooted in regional identity movements- Eg – DMK (Tamil identity), TMC (Bengal pride).

    Opposition to central interference- Resist misuse of Article 356 and Governor’s powers.

    Institutional Reasons

    Representation in central bodies- Seek stronger role for states in institutions like Finance Commission and NITI Aayog.

    Push for cooperative federalism- Eg- Anandpur Sahib Resolution on centre-state relations

    Economic Reasons

    Fiscal autonomy- Demand greater tax devolution and freedom in fund usage.

    Resource control- Want more authority over natural resources and industries.

    Discontent over CSS- Oppose Centrally Sponsored Schemes that restrict flexibility.

    Social & Cultural Reasons

    Language and cultural protection- Eg – DMK’s anti-Hindi protests.

    Address local inequalities- Focus on state-specific social justice and caste realities.

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” It must rest on the principles of autonomy, adequacy, and elasticity.

    Constitutional and Statutory Bodies

  • To what extent, in your opinion, has the decentralisation of power in India changed the governance landscape at the grassroots ?

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”.

    Positive Transformations in Governance Landscape

    Rajni Kothari described local bodies as “schools of democracy” where political awareness and participation are cultivated at the grassroots level.

    Democratic Deepening with over 32 lakh elected representatives across 2.6 lakh Panchayats and 4,000+ urban bodies.

    Social Inclusion and Equity – Reservation for SCs, STs, and women enhanced representation of marginalised groups in decision-making. Eg- Women’s Representation at 46.44%

    Panchayats manage programmes like MGNREGA, PMAY-G, Jal Jeevan Mission, bringing last-mile efficiency.

    Participatory Planning – Gram Sabhas and Ward Committees have improved local accountability and need-based development. Eg- Social Audits of MGNREGA

    Strengthened Disaster Response – Eg- during COVID-19 and Kerala floods.

    Efficient Resource Management- Eg- Hiware Bazar in Maharashtra effectively managed water resources through watershed development.

    Conflict Resolution- Reports indicate a 30% reduction in petty disputes reaching district courts due to effective Panchayat mediation.

    Challenges

    “PRIs exist as over-structured but underpowered organisations.” (2nd ARC)

    No decentralisation of power, rather decentralisation of corruption – Mani Shankar Iyer Committee

    Dependence on higher tiers- Around 95% of Panchayat funds come from Central/State transfers, limiting fiscal autonomy.

    Limited own-source revenue- Poor tax collection efficiency (>1% own tax).

    Barriers to Local Taxation- Freebie culture and fear of losing popularity discourage local taxation.

    Incomplete devolution- less than 20% of States have transferred all 29 subjects under 11th Schedule (MoPR, 2022). (​​overall Panchayat Devolution Index is only 43.89% (2021-22))

    Centralised Welfare via Cash Transfers – The welfare state now relies on DBT through JAM, bypassing panchayats and reducing local accountability and participatory governance

    Shortage of staff- Average 0.67 Panchayat Secretaries per Gram Panchayat, as low as 0.33 in Uttar Pradesh.

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    Gender and social barriers leading to proxy control. (Sarpanch Pati)

    Manishankar Aiyar Committee recommendations.

    Establish National Commission for Panchayati Raj.

    Create Panchayat Ombudsman for grievance redressal.

    Set up a separate cadre of Panchayat bureaucracy with a code of conduct.

    Adopt activity mapping for clear delineation of 3Fs – Funds, Functions, Functionaries.

    To realise the vision of “Gram Uday se Bharat Uday”, India needs second-generation Panchayati Raj reforms

  • Discuss the role of the Vice-President of India as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

    The Vice-President of India, under Article 64 of the Constitution, is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

    Role of the Vice-President

    Presiding Authority – The Vice-President, as ex-officio Chairman, conducts proceedings, maintains order and decorum, and ensures smooth legislative functioning.

    Regulator of Debates – Allocates time, permits discussions, and ensures equal opportunity to both treasury and opposition benches.

    Interpreter of Rules – Decides points of order and interprets parliamentary rules to maintain procedural consistency.

    Casting Vote – Does not ordinarily vote but exercises a casting vote in case of a tie, ensuring impartial decision-making.

    Promotes Deliberation – Facilitates meaningful debates and consensus-building, enabling Rajya Sabha to act as a House of Review.

    Upholds Federal Balance – Protects state interests and ensures fair representation of diverse regional perspectives.

    Encourages Transparency – Ensures proceedings are open and accessible (e.g., live telecast of sessions) to enhance accountability.

    Maintains Impartiality – Expected to act above party lines, setting high ethical standards in conduct.

    Limitations of the Vice-President Compared to the Speaker of Lok Sabha

    Does not preside over joint sittings of Parliament (Article 118).

    The Vice-President cannot suspend or expel MPs for disorderly conduct, unlike the Speaker who can act under Rules 373 and 374A.

    No Role in Money Bills under Article 110.

    No Power Over Confidence Motions

    The Vice-President as Chairman ensures that the Rajya Sabha functions as the House of sober second thought, balancing federal interests and national priorities.

  • Discuss the role of the National Commission for Backward Classes in the wake of its transformation from a statutory body to a constitutional body.

    The 102nd Constitution Amendment Act, 2018 inserted Article 338B, elevating the commission to par with the NCSC and NCST.

    Role of the National Commission for Backward Classes

    Investigating Constitutional Safeguards provided to backward classes under the Constitution.

    Exercising Civil Court Powers to summon officials, demand public records, and examine witnesses during active inquiries.

    Inquiry into Rights Violations: investigates specific citizen grievances regarding the outright denial or subversion of rights belonging to SEBCs.

    Advising on Socio-Economic Development: Formulates policy guidelines and advises both Union and State governments on targeted welfare planning for backward communities.

    Evaluating Departmental Progress: Reviews and audits the grassroots performance and execution speed of central and state-level affirmative action schemes.

    Presents comprehensive structural review reports to the President of India regarding the operational health of welfare frameworks.

    The Union and State governments consult the NCBC on all major policy matters affecting SEBCs.

    Enforcing Reservation Compliance: Monitors and checks public sector recruitment pipelines to guarantee strict adherence to the mandated 27% OBC quotas.

    Aids the institutional procedure of identifying and reviewing communities for the Central OBC list under Article 342A.

    Case Studies

    Enforcing Creamy Layer Compliance in Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs)

    The commission played a central key role in implementation of the 27% OBC reservation within the All India Quota for undergraduate and postgraduate medical and dental courses (NEET).

    Major issues

    Recommendations are not binding on executive

    Overlapping jurisdiction with other bodies like NHRX, NCW etc

    Lack of administrative and financial autonomy

    Strengthening the NCBC is essential to achieve constitutional objective of Social Justice

  • The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment.

    The RPwD Act, 2016 was enacted to align India’s legal framework with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) to promote equality, ensure dignity, and protect rights of PwDs.

    Key Features of the RPwD Act, 2016

    Expanded definition: Disability categories increased from 7 to 21, including autism, thalassemia, acid attack survivors, etc.

    Reservation: 4% in government jobs and 5% in higher education for PwDs.

    Accessibility: Mandates barrier-free public infrastructure, ICT accessibility, and universal design.

    Institutional Framework: Establishment of Central and State Advisory Boards, Chief Commissioner and State Commissioners for PwDs.

    Legal Protection: Punishment for discrimination, and provision of special courts to handle disability-related matters.

    Major Issues Hindering Effective Implementation

    Bureaucratic Issues

    Poor Institutional Implementation- As per Department of Empowerment of PwDs, only 23 of 35 States/UTs had constituted State Advisory Boards.

    Inaccessible Infrastructure- Under Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat), only 3% of government buildings were made fully accessible by 2024.

    Tokenistic Compliance- Disability cells in ministries lack funds and trained staff.

    Delay in appointing state commissioners and lack of special courts restrict legal recourse for PwDs.

    Fragmented Coordination- Overlap between ministries (Social Justice, Urban Affairs, HRD) causes slow execution of inclusive programs.

    Citizen Awareness and Social Sensitisation Issues

    Social Stigma and Prejudice- PwDs continue to face exclusion, pity narratives, and stereotypes in media and public life.

    Lack of Awareness Among Citizens and Local Institutions- Rural households and PRIs remain unaware of provisions such as disability certificates or reservation rights.

    Educational Exclusion- Despite RTE inclusion, schools lack special educators and assistive devices; enrolment gaps persist.

    Digital Divide and Communication Barriers- Most government websites and platforms fail web accessibility compliance standards (WCAG).

    Media Misrepresentation- Stereotyping of PwDs continues despite Supreme Court directives (2024) against derogatory portrayals in films and media.

    Way Forward

    Sensitisation – Conduct mandatory disability awareness training for civil servants, teachers, and health workers.

    Grassroots Awareness Campaigns: Use community radio, local NGOs, and ASHA/Aanganwadi networks.

    Institutional Strengthening: Fully operationalize State Advisory Boards, ensure adequate funding and monitoring.

    Accessibility Revolution: Enforce Sugamya Bharat milestones with real-time audits.

    True inclusion demands a “whole-of-society” approach-one that blends policy, participation, and perception change to realise the vision of “Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Vishwas.”

  • Reforming the government delivery system through the Direct Benefit Transfer Scheme is a progressive step, but it has its limitations too. Comment.

    As per World Bank (2023), India’s DBT architecture is the largest social protection systems globally, covering over 900 million people.

    Progressive Aspects of the DBT Scheme

    Cost Savings – DBT system helped India achieve by eliminating ghost beneficiaries, duplication, and leakages. (BlueKraft Digital Foundation, 2025)

    Better targeting – Subsidy allocations reduced from 16% (pre-DBT) to 9% of total government expenditure.

    Transparency and Reduction in Leakages – DBT has significantly reduced ghost beneficiaries and duplication. Eg-In PAHAL (LPG subsidy)

    Financial Inclusion – PM Jan Dhan Yojana enabled over 50 crore accounts, empowering poor women and rural households to receive funds directly.

    Efficiency and Timeliness – Eliminated intermediaries and delays. Eg-MNREGA, PM-KISAN, and PMUY payments.

    Strengthening Governance Accountability – Real-time monitoring via Public Financial Management System (PFMS) ensures audit trails and transparency.

    Inclusive Welfare Delivery and targeted support during crises. Eg-20 crore women Jan Dhan accounts.

    Promotes Digital and Cashless Economy – Eg- UPI handles 85% of India’s digital payments, processing (June 2025).

    Limitations of DBT Implementation

    Exclusion Errors: Aadhaar authentication failures lead to denial of benefits. Eg- Jharkhand PDS (2017) saw 10-15% exclusion (NITI Aayog).

    Digital Divide: Only 43% rural households have internet access (NFHS-5, 2021).

    Weak Banking Infrastructure: Shortage of bank branches and CSPs in rural and hilly areas.

    Data Privacy and Security Risks: Eg- Aadhaar and CoWIN data leaks.

    Technocratic Bias: Focus on automation sidelines those lacking digital literacy or documentation

    Administrative Delays: Verification and coordination issues cause payment rejections or delays. Eg- payment delays in MGNREGA

    Limited Grievance Redressal: Weak feedback mechanisms for correction of DBT errors.

    Way Forward

    Improve Authentication: Use offline Aadhaar, multi-factor verification, and local validation.

    Institutional Reforms: Apply Business Process Re-engineering (2nd ARC) for simpler workflows.

    Social Audits and Human Interface: Combine digital governance with local institutions for last-mile trust.

    Strengthen Digital Infrastructure: Accelerate BharatNet Phase-II to connect all Gram Panchayats

    Enhance Digital Literacy: Expand PMGDISHA and integrate digital literacy in school curricula (e-Kidz, IT clubs).

    India must move toward “Technology with Inclusion” – ensuring no beneficiary is left behind.

  • How will you explain that medieval Indian temple sculptures represent the social life of those days? (स्पष्ट करें कि मध्यकालीन भारतीय मंदिरों की मूर्तिकला उस दौर के सामाजिक जीवन का प्रतिनिधित्व करती है।)

  • Discuss the significance of the lion and bull figures in Indian mythology, art and architecture.(भारतीय मिथक कला और वास्तुकला में सिंह एवं वृषभ की आकृतियों के महत्व पर विचार करें।)

    Animal symbolism occupies a central place in Indian civilisational thought. Among these, the lion and bull find continuous expression from Vedic times to modern India in religion, art and architecture.

    Significance of the Lion

    Mythological Significance

    Divine power and protection – Lion is the vahana of Goddess Durga, symbolising victory of dharma over adharma. Eg- Mahishasuramardini imagery.

    Incarnation of Vishnu – Narasimha avatar (half-man, half-lion) represents divine intervention against tyranny.

    Royal authority – Lion associated with kingship and sovereignty in Puranic literature.

    Buddha is also called as Shakya-Simha. His first sermon is described as the “Lion’s Roar” (Simhanada), signifying the power and authority of Truth.

    Throne Symbolism- The Indian word for throne is Simhasana (Lion-seat), indicating that the occupant possesses the qualities of a lion.

    Artistic Significance

    Symbol of fearlessness and majesty – Eg- Lions shown overpowering elephants or enemies

    Ashokan Lion Capital – Four lions back-to-back at Sarnath symbolise power, vigilance and moral governance.

    Narasimha is an important form in Indian sculpture and paintings. Eg – Narasimha’s relief at the temple of Belur.

    Architectural Significance

    Guardian figures – Lions placed at temple entrances and gopurams as protectors of sacred space.

    State symbolism – Adopted as National Emblem of India, reflecting continuity of ancient political ideals.

    Significance of the Bull

    Mythological Significance

    Vehicle of Lord Shiva – Nandi, the bull, symbolises devotion, strength and fertility

    Cosmic order – Bull associated with Dharma standing on four legs in Satya Yuga.

    Agrarian symbolism – Bull revered as sustainer of life, linked with prosperity and agriculture.

    The first Jain Tirthankara is symbolized by the Bull (Rishabha), representing the beginning of the spiritual path

    Artistic Significance

    Icon of devotion – Sculpted Nandi figures placed facing the sanctum in Shiva temples. Eg- Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur.

    The bronze bull of Kalibangan represents Harappan skill in lost-wax casting

    Bull sculptures on the capital of Mauryan pillars depicting the zodiac sign of Taurus.

    Rampurva Bull Capital represents the calm, stable aspect of the Emperor’s rule.

    Architectural Significance

    Integral temple element – Separate Nandi mandapas in Dravidian temples. Eg- Largest monolithic statue of Nandi in Lepakshi Temple.

    Alignment of Nandi with garbhagriha symbolises direct spiritual connection.

    The Lion and the Bull act as the dual pillars of Indian iconography, reflecting the “spirit of India.”

  • Examine the potential of wind energy in India and explain the reasons for their limited spatial spread. (भारत में पवन ऊर्जा की संभावना का परीक्षण कीजिए एवं उनके सीमित क्षेत्रीय विस्तार के कारणों को समझाइए|)

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