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  • India–Africa digital partnership is achieving mutual respect, co-development and long-term institutional partnerships. Elaborate.

    In the words of PM Modi, “Africa will remain at the center of our attention. Our partnership is not just about sharing resources but about sharing dreams and a vision for a brighter future.”

    India-Africa Digital Partnership

    Foundation of Mutual Respect-

    South-South Cooperation– based on equality, non-conditionality, and mutual benefit.

    Unlike the Chinese “Digital Silk Road”, India provides low-cost and interoperable solutions.

    Africa views India as a partner in capacity building, not a neo-colonial actor. (Shashi Tharoor)

    Co-development through Technology and Capacity Building-

    Pan-African e-Network (2009)- Connects 48 African countries with India for tele-education and telemedicine.

    India’s Aadhaar, UPI, CoWIN, and DigiLocker systems serve as models for Africa’s Digital Transformation Strategy (2020-2030). Eg- Namibia – NPCI Pact for a UPI-like instant payment system

    ITEC Program- Trains African professionals in e-governance, AI, fintech, and cybersecurity, promoting shared digital growth.

    Long-term Institutional Partnerships-

    India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) & Voice of Global South Summit (2023)- Institutionalize digital cooperation as a core agenda.

    EXIM Bank LoCs & Tech Parks- Fund ICT hubs and innovation centers (e.g., Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania).

    Start-up collaboration under Digital India-Digital Africa initiative, in agri-tech, e-health, fintech, and education.

    Triangular cooperation with Japan under Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) supports digital infrastructure.

    Education and Skilling – Eg- IIT Madras campus in Zanzibar (first overseas IIT)

    The digital partnership reflects a new model of South-South cooperation for inclusive digital transformation

  • Discuss the evolution of collegium system in India. Critically examine the advantages and disadvantages of the system on appointment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India and that of the USA.

    The appointment of judges is central to judicial independence and part of the Basic Structure (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973).

    In India, this evolved through judicial interpretation, whereas in the USA, the process is constitutionally and politically structured.

    Evolution of the Collegium System in India

    Articles 124(2) and 217(1)– Provide for appointment of judges by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI).

    First Judges Case (S.P. Gupta v. Union of India, 1981)

    Held that “consultation” does not mean “concurrence.” CJI’s opinion was not binding

    Gave primacy to the executive in judicial appointments and transfers.

    Second Judges Case (Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association v. Union of India, 1993) – Overruled the 1981 judgment. Established the Collegium System– CJI + 2 senior-most judges of the Supreme Court to recommend appointments.

    Third Judges Case (Re Presidential Reference, 1998) – Expanded the collegium to CJI + 4 senior-most judges. Made consultation with the collegium binding on the executive.

    Parliament passed the 99th Constitutional Amendment to replace the collegium with NJAC. Composition- CJI, 2 senior judges, Law Minister, and 2 eminent persons.

    Supreme Court Judgment (2015), NJAC was struck down as unconstitutional, violating the Basic Structure (judicial independence).

    Present Status

    Collegium Composition-

    Supreme Court- CJI + 4 senior-most judges.

    High Court- Chief Justice + 2 senior-most judges.

    Executive Role- Can seek reconsideration once, but must accept the collegium’s recommendation thereafter.

    In the USA, Judges of the Supreme Court are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate after public hearings.

    Analysis of system of appointment

    India

    USA

    India’s collegium ensures independence but lacks transparency, whereas the U.S. model ensures openness but risks politicisation. Thus, a mechanism balancing independence and accountability is essential to preserve judicial integrity and democratic legitimacy.

  • Indian Constitution has conferred the amending power on the ordinary legislative institutions with a few procedural hurdles. In view of this statement, examine the procedural and substantive limitations on the amending power of the Parliament to change the Constitution.

    The Indian Constitution, under Article 368, confers the power of amendment on Parliament. However, this power is neither absolute nor unlimited, being subject to procedural and substantive limitations.

    Procedural Limitations

    These are explicit constitutional conditions laid down in Article 368. Violation of any renders the amendment invalid.

    Special Majority Requirement – Majority of total membership of each House, and Two-thirds of members present and voting.

    Separate Approval by Each House – No joint sitting is allowed under Article 108.

    Ratification by Half States for Federal Provisions – Eg- 101st Amendment (GST) required ratification.

    Presidential Assent under Article 368(2).

    Bill must follow all legislative procedures – notice, debate, quorum, and voting. Procedural irregularities can invite judicial scrutiny (as per Raj Narain v. Indira Gandhi, 1975).

    Substantive Limitations on the Amending Power

    These are judicially evolved constraints that restrict Parliament from altering the core identity of the Constitution.

    Doctrine of Basic Structure (Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973))

    Limited Amending Power Itself is Basic Structure (Minerva Mills, 1980) – Clauses (4) and (5) of Article 368 (inserted by the 42nd Amendment) were struck down.

    I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007) held that even laws placed in the Ninth Schedule after 1973 are open to Basic Structure review.

    Parliament cannot amend to abrogate or emasculate Fundamental Rights forming part of the Basic Structure (e.g., equality, liberty).

    Parliament cannot alter the essential federal balance between Centre and States. (Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India (2006))

    Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975)- Free and fair elections, rule of law, and judicial review are part of Basic Structure.

    Harmony between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles – Both must coexist; destroying one in favor of the other violates Basic Structure.

    Examination of limitations

    Thus, the limited amending power under Article 368 makes the Indian Constitution a living document, capable of growth yet immune from destruction.

  • Discuss the nature of Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly after the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019. Briefly describe the powers and functions of the Assembly of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.

    The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019, following the abrogation of Article 370 and 35A, reorganized the former State of J&K into two Union Territories – Jammu & Kashmir (with legislature) and Ladakh (without legislature).

    Nature of J&K Legislative Assembly after the J&K Reorganization Act, 2019

    The UT of J&K Assembly resembles that of Delhi and Puducherry, functioning under Article 239A with limited law-making powers.

    The Lieutenant Governor (LG) is the head of the UT, appointed by the President, and wields greater authority than Governors of states.

    The Assembly has a five-year term (not six as earlier).

    Abolition of J&K Legislative Council – Bicameralism ended, Assembly became unicameral.

    Out of 107 seats in J&K Assembly-

    83 elected,

    24 reserved for Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK),

    5 to be nominated by the LG, including 2 women (as per the Act, 2019 amendment 2023).

    Powers and Functions of J&K Legislative Assembly

    Legislative Powers

    Can legislate on subjects of the State List, except public order, police and concurrent list subject.

    Section 36 – Financial Bills in J&K UT can be introduced or moved in the Legislative Assembly only on the recommendation of the Lieutenant Governor.

    Laws require assent of the LG, who may refer bills to the President.

    Executive Oversight

    The Council of Ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, is collectively responsible to the Assembly.

    The Assembly exercises oversight through questions, motions, debates, and budget control.

    However, Section 53 – LG acts in discretion on matters related to All India Services & Anti-Corruption Bureau.

    Financial Powers

    Can pass the annual budget and authorize expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of J&K.

    Money Bills require the prior recommendation of the LG.

    The J&K Legislative Assembly post-2019 is a restricted legislature, balancing democratic representation with the Union’s direct control over sensitive subjects.

  • “Constitutional morality is the fulcrum which acts as an essential check upon the high functionaries and citizens alike…” In view of the above observation of the Supreme Court, explain the concept of constitutional morality and its application to ensure balance between judicial independence and judicial accountability in India.

    Constitutional morality implies adherence to the core principles and spirit of the Constitution in a democracy. In the words of Ambedkar, “Constitutional morality is not a natural sentiment. It has to be cultivated”.

    Constitutional morality as the fulcrum

    Checks on High Functionaries

    Supremacy of Constitution – Limits arbitrary use of executive or legislative power.

    Rule of Law – Ensures decisions are legal, not personal or political.

    Judicial Review – Eg- NJAC Judgment

    Equality & Non-discrimination – Prevents rulers from favouring particular groups.

    Democratic Accountability – Demands transparency and answerability in governance. Eg- D. C. Wadhwa Case – frequent promulgation of ordinance as “fraud on the Constitution.”

    Separation of Powers – Eg – Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975) struck down 39th Amendment to protect judicial review.

    Spirit of Justice – Requires policies and judgments to align with fairness.

    Checks on Citizens

    Ensures public morality does not override rights and dignity of individuals. Eg – Navtej Johar (2018) decriminalised homosexuality, Sabrimala Judgment.

    Equality & Non-discrimination – Binds citizens against practising caste, gender, or religious exclusion.

    Tolerance & Fraternity – Discourages hate speech, intolerance, or majoritarian excesses.

    Constitutional Patriotism – Promotes loyalty to constitutional ideals over narrow identity politics. Eg- Fundamental Duties

    Concept of constitutional morality

    George Grote, in his History of Greece, described constitutional morality as a “rare and difficult sentiment”–

    Paramount reverence for forms and procedures of the Constitution.

    Adherence to law while enabling open criticism of authority.

    Need for public reason, self-restraint, and trust in institutions.

    Application of Constitutional Morality in Balancing Judicial Independence and Accountability

    Judicial Appointments – Constitutional morality preserves judicial primacy in appointments (NJAC Case 2015), while demanding transparency and collegium reforms for accountability.

    Judicial Review – Protects independence of judiciary to strike down unconstitutional laws (Kesavananda Bharati 1973), yet requires judicial restraint to avoid overreach.

    Judicial Conduct – Ensures judges remain free from executive pressure, but also subject to scrutiny for corruption or misconduct (K. Veeraswami v. Union of India 1991).

    Public Trust – Judicial independence protects rule of law, while accountability ensures public confidence in the judiciary.

    Ensures Transparency and accountability – Subhash Agarwal Case- Brought CJI’s office under RTI.

    Public Interest Litigation (PIL) – Expands access to justice for the poor and marginalised, but constitutional morality demands avoidance of frivolous PILs to preserve judicial credibility.

    Contempt Powers – Secure judicial independence, but require tolerance of criticism unless it obstructs justice delivery. Eg- Prashant Bhushan Case

    As Justice D.Y. Chandrachud observed, “Judicial independence is not a privilege but a responsibility owed to the Constitution.”

  • With the waning of globalization, post-Cold War world is becoming a site of sovereign nationalism. Elucidate.

    Thomas Friedman, (The Lexus and the Olive Tree), defines globalization as the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies, making it farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper. However, at present, the world is witnessing ‘Deglobalisation’.

    Waning of Globalization

    Global trade as % of GDP peaked at 61% in 2008, declining to ~52% by 2024 (World Bank).

    Reversal of Liberalization- Trade wars, tariffs (US-China), and reshoring policies mark a retreat from free markets.

    The splinternet, 5G bans, and AI regulation indicate the politicisation of technology.

    Weakening of Global Institutions- paralysis of WTO, and unilateral sanctions. Eg- USA’s CAATSA

    Regionalism replacing globalization – RCEP, IPEF, BRICS+, EU strategic autonomy.

    Rise of Sovereign Nationalism

    Economic Nationalism – US “America First”, India’s Atmanirbhar Bharat, EU’s strategic autonomy.

    Resource Nationalism- Nations asserting control over rare earths, energy, and food exports. Eg- Indonesia’s nickel ban.

    Political Sovereignty – Brexit (2016) justified as “taking back control”.

    Identity Politics- Nationalist rhetoric linked to cultural, ethnic, or religious identity. Eg- rise of Neo Fascist powers in Europe.

    Strategic Assertion – Russia’s rejection of Western dominance through the Ukraine war.

    Digital Sovereignty – EU’s GDPR and DSA for data protection; China’s Great Firewall.

    Security Nationalism – Eg- Iran’s nuclear program

    Vaccine & Resource Nationalism during COVID-19

    Backlash Against Migration- Eg- Immigration controls in UK, EU, USA

    Public Opinion Shift- Global surveys (Pew, 2023) show declining trust in globalization and preference for domestic self-reliance.

    The retreat of globalization signals a transition from hyper-interdependence to guarded sovereignty and realist state-centric politics

  • “In contemporary development models, decision-making and problem-solving responsibilities are not located close to the source of information and execution, defeating the objectives of development.” Critically evaluate.

    Contemporary development models

    Neoliberal – privatization, and deregulation

    Technocratic Model – Data driven governance

    Donor-Driven Model

    PPP Model

    Participatory Development Model

    Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Not Close to Ground

    Centralized Policy Design, with limited input from grassroots institutions. Eg- Uniform guidelines under PMAY-Gramin

    Bureaucratic Hierarchies lead to delayed responses. Eg- delays in fund release under MGNREGA due to multi-tier approvals.

    Technocratic and Data-Centric Planning leads to exclusion of indigenous knowledge.

    Weak Decentralization – PRIs and ULBs lack fiscal and functional autonomy. Only 40% of states have functional District Planning Committees (NITI Aayog, 2022).

    Lack of Coordination – ministries and departments work in silos. Eg- Smart Cities Mission: 60% projects delayed due to poor coordination.

    Lack of Participatory democracy – Communities are treated as beneficiaries rather than partners in development.

    Political and Fiscal Centralization through centrally sponsored schemes

    Regulatory Capture – Eg- Nexus of Bureaucracy-Politicians-Corporate. (Vohra Committee)

    Counter-Argument

    73rd & 74th Constitutional Amendments empowered PRIs and ULBs for local governance and participatory planning.

    Gram Panchayat Development Plans (GPDPs) institutionalized bottom-up planning in over 2.6 lakh Panchayats.

    Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP) – Promotes data-driven local governance with district-level flexibility and real-time monitoring.

    PM Gati Shakti National Master Plan – Integrates 16 ministries on a GIS-based platform to align planning and execution at ground level.

    Mission Karmayogi – Builds capacity of field-level officials for local problem-solving and citizen-centric service delivery.

    Cooperative Federalism via NITI Aayog – Governing Council enable state-specific and local feedback-based planning.

    Community-Led Models – Swachh Bharat Mission and Jal Jeevan Mission emphasize village-level implementation and monitoring.

    State Level Measures – Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach – increase spending on Health (2.5%of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Adopt Best Practices – Participatory Budgeting in porto alegre brazil

    Decentralized Governance based on principle of subsidiarity.

    “Growth becomes meaningful only when it expands human freedom and capability.” – Amartya Sen

    For this, decision-making authority and problem-solving responsibilities should be at the grassroots level.

    Social Justice

    Government Policies and Interventions for Welfare Schemes for Vulnerable Sections

  • Do you think that globalization results in only an aggressive consumer culture?

    Thomas Friedman, (The Lexus and the Olive Tree), defines globalization as the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies, making it farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper.

    Globalisation resulting in an aggressive consumer culture

    Expansion of Global Brands – Multinational corporations standardise consumption patterns. Eg- McDonaldization of food habits

    Market-Driven Aspirations – Identity increasingly shaped by consumption choices. Eg- Status linked to ownership of branded gadgets like Apple iphones

    Advertising and Media Influence – Eg- Targeted digital ads promoting instant gratification and lifestyle consumption.

    The spread of “Buy Now, Pay Later” schemes has led to a spike in “impulse buying” among Gen Z, replacing the traditional Indian value of Mitavyaya (frugality).

    Cultural Commodification – Traditions converted into market products. Eg- Big Billion Days during Diwali

    Rise of “Fast Culture” – Globalization of supply chains allows for the rapid production of cheap goods, encouraging a “use and throw” mentality. Eg- Fast Fashion industry

    Urban Lifestyle Homogenisation – Eg- rise of mall culture

    Youth-Oriented Consumerism – Eg- Social media influencer culture shaping consumption norms.

    Inequality-Driven Consumption Pressure – Aspirational consumption among lower middle class despite income gaps.

    The traditional Indian value of Mitha-vyaya (balanced spending) is being replaced by the “You Only Live Once” (YOLO) philosophy due to global individualistic culture.

    Counter-Argument- Beyond Aggressive Consumerism

    Rise of Sustainable and Ethical Consumption – increasing demand for organic food and eco-friendly products.

    Minimalism – globalization has spread the philosophy of “Less is More.” Eg- the Scandinavian “Lagom” philosophy

    Glocalization (Think Global, Act Local) – Eg- McDonald’s menu in India is beef-free, while Domino’s serves Paneer Tikka Pizza.

    Global Export of Culture – Eg- International Yoga Day and the global Ayurveda market have moved Indian traditional knowledge to the center of global wellness.

    Reassertion of Values (“Returning to Roots”) – urban youth increasingly participates in traditional festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi or Chhath Puja as a mark of identity.

    Circular Economy Adoption- focus on “Recycle and Upcycle” business models, countering the throwaway culture.

    Global Environmental Activism to hold government and corporate accountable for unsustainable policies and practices. Eg- Fridays for Future movement

    Revival of Local Crafts through E-commerce – Platforms like Etsy or India’s Jaypore promote traditional “Slow Fashion” (like Handloom) and ethical consumerism

    Globalization has also facilitated Universal Human Rights Advocacy – Eg- global #BlackLivesMatter or #MeToo movements

    Flow of Knowledge and Ideas – Globalisation enables access to education, research, and innovation. Eg- wikipedia

    Globalization is a Janus-faced phenomenon (Anthony Giddens). Improving regulation, social consciousness, and value choices is needed.

  • Discuss the ‘corrupt practices’ for the purpose of the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Analyze whether the increase in the assets of the legislators and/or their associates, disproportionate to their known sources of income, would constitute ‘undue influence’ and consequently a corrupt practice.

    The Representation of the People Act, 1951 defines a set of “corrupt practices” (Section 123), violation of which can lead to disqualification of a candidate (Section 8).

    Corrupt Practices under RPA, 1951

    Bribery – Offering or accepting gratification (money, jobs, gifts, entertainment) to induce candidature, withdrawal, or voting/refraining from voting. Eg- Distribution of cash or liquor during elections.

    Undue Influence – Interference (direct or indirect) with the free exercise of electoral rights through threats, inducements, or pressure. Eg- Threats of social boycott or misuse of official authority.

    Appeal on Identity Grounds – Seeking votes based on religion, caste, community, race, or language, or using religious/national symbols.

    Promotion of Enmity – Spreading hatred between groups for electoral gains.

    False Statements – Publishing knowingly false information about a candidate’s personal character or conduct to prejudice election prospects.

    SC in 2023 held that providing false information about electoral Candidates Qualification is not a Corrupt Practice under RPA, 1951.

    Free Conveyance of Voters – Hiring vehicles/vessels for voters’ free transport to polling stations.

    Excessive Expenditure – Spending beyond limits prescribed under Section 77.

    Misuse of Official Machinery – Seeking help from government servants such as gazetted officers, judges, police, armed forces.

    Booth Capturing – Seizing polling stations or ballot boxes by force.

    Glorification of Sati or Regressive Practices – Using such appeals for electoral advantage.

    Assets of Legislators and the Question of Undue Influence

    Since 2004, under the Representation of the People Act, 1951, MPs must declare their assets and liabilities to the Speaker (Lok Sabha) or Chairman (Rajya Sabha) within 90 days of taking their seat.

    The Supreme Court, in Lok Prahari case, mandated that candidates disclose not only their assets but also the sources of income of themselves, their spouses, and dependents.

    It directed the Centre to amend election rules and nomination forms, and sought a permanent mechanism to probe disproportionate asset growth of legislators.

    The Court held that non-disclosure of assets or income sources amounts to a corrupt practice under Section 123, RPA 1951.

    A legislator’s or associate’s increase in assets disproportionate to known income is also a matter of corruption under Prevention of Corruption Act (1988) or criminal misconduct under IPC/Prevention of Money Laundering Act. Section 8 (3) of the Act states that if an MP or MLA is convicted for any other crime and is sent to jail for 2 years or more, he/ she will be disqualified for 6 years from the time of release.

    Thus, the disqualification provisions ensure the trinity of Ethics, Accountability and Fairness of electoral process.

  • Give a geographical explanation of the distribution of off-shore oil reserves of the world. How are they different from the on-shore occurrences of oil reserves?

    Petroleum reserves are found in sedimentary basins, where organic matter is trapped under pressure. Offshore reserves account for ~30% of global crude oil production. Their distribution is linked to continental shelf geology, passive margins, and deep-water basins.

    Geographical distribution

    The Persian Gulf (Middle East)- result of the collision between the Arabian and Eurasian plates, which created perfect “anticline” traps for oil. Eg- Safaniya field (Saudi Arabia), largest offshore oil field in the world.

    The Gulf of Mexico (North America)- It is characterized by salt domes that trap oil in the surrounding porous rock.

    The North Sea (Europe)- Situated between the UK, Norway, and Denmark. This region is a rift basin, with deep depressions where organic matter could settle.

    The South Atlantic Margins (Brazil & West Africa)- formed when South America and Africa drifted apart.

    Southeast Asia & India- in the South China Sea and India’s Mumbai High and Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin

    Difference between off-shore and on-shore oil reserves

    Implications of uneven distribution of mineral oils in the world

    Energy security challenges – Oil-deficient countries face high import bills and current account deficits. Eg- India imports ~85% of its crude oil requirement.

    Resource Curse in Oil-rich Nations (Paradox of Plenty) – Overdependence on oil leads to limited economic diversification. Eg- Venezuela’s economic crisis.

    Energy trade is one of the key drivers of global geopolitics. Eg- US sanctions on Russian and Iran oil trade

    Competition for oil resources leads to wars and regional instability. Eg- Gulf Wars, Saudi-Iran rivalry.

    Oil-rich regions face oil spills, land degradation, and marine pollution. Eg- Niger Delta pollution.

    Global Carbon Emissions – oil and gas industry is responsible for over 5 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent in direct emissions annually (15% of total energy-related emissions)

    In the long run, reducing oil dependence through clean energy, strategic reserves, and diversified supply chains is essential for ensuring equitable and sustainable global development.

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