The article explains the working of Hybrid Annuity Model in the road construction and the risks involved in the model.
Investment in road sector
The central government has set a target of increasing the investment in infrastructure to over Rs 111 lakh crore over the period FY20-FY25.
Within the transportation segment, projects worth Rs 36.7 lakh crore, constituting 55% of transportation infra, are for the road sector.
The large investments planned in the road sector signifies its importance—it has a multiplier effect on the economy and provides large employment opportunities.
Models for the road sector
Out of HAM (Hybrid Annuity Model) and BOT (Build, Operate and Transfer)—toll developers prefer the relatively lower risk HAM model.
This is due to its various positives like lower equity requirements, provision for mobilisation advances, better right of way availability, inflation-linked adjustments for bid project cost, termination payments during the construction period and de-linking construction and operations.
These HAM features have garnered a favourable response and mix of HAM awards has increased from 10% in FY16 to 48% in H1FY2021.
How HAM works and risks involved
During the operations period for a HAM project, the recovery from authority is in the form of fixed annuity payments along with interest on balance accumulated annuity payments (calculated @300 bps over prevailing bank rate)
The only major risk for HAM is the prevailing low bank rates adversely affecting the overall project viability and returns.
Such interest receipts account for around 45% of total inflows.
Low bank rate would thus reduce the overall inflows for a HAM project, thereby adversely affecting its debt coverage metrics and returns to the investors.
The second problem is related to delayed and inadequate interest rate transmission—there is a transmission lag for the project loan (linked to MCLR of banks).
Changes in model concession agreement
As per revised concession agreement dated November 10, 2020, interest rate on annuities will be equal to the average MCLR of top 5 scheduled commercial banks plus 1.25% instead of bank rate.
With the average MCLR replacing the bank rate, there will be a natural hedge between the annuity inflows and interest costs,
This will reduce the interest rate risks to a large extent, and that too without any delay.
The other major revision is the grant payment from the authority which will now be paid in 10 instalments instead of five.
The other major revision is the grant payment from the authority which will now be paid in 10 instalments instead of five.
Thus, the spacing between the payment milestones is reduced.
This will improve the cash conversion cycle for the contractors executing the HAM projects as their payments are back to back in nature.
However, these changes will be applicable for new awards, and the fate of the existing HAM projects is hanging in the balance.
Conclusion
With improved attractiveness, HAM is expected to remain the mainstay for public-private partnership projects in the road sector.
IAS pre-2021 preparation must start with the previous year’s paper analysis as the first step. Not only it’ll give you an understanding of UPSC’s expectations, trend, etc. but also awareness about your prep level at this point in time.
Sudhanshu sir will be conducting a session on Habitat club where he’ll be discussing IAS pre papers for the year 2019 and 2020.
It is a holistically designed crash course for the UPSC IAS prelims exam. To make it more efficient and outcome-oriented we’ve integrated it with Habitat.
Decimate Prelims 2021 @ Habitat is a three-phased program that ensures full coverage of current affairs syllabus, related static parts, tests, intensive discussions, and revision.
We’re going more intensive and comprehensive to make sure that you comfortably go beyond 130+ marks and literally decimate prelims.
UPSC is evolving, are you? Bury the old ways of IAS Prelims preparation.
How daily Habitat classes will be held?
Since we’re going to be comprehensive and effective, we’ve planned Habitat classes twice a day (2+2 hrs/day) as per a schedule.
Forenoon session: 10am – 12:30pm
You’ll be provided with the base notes and reading material beforehand. In the Habitat class the focus will be on:
Explanation and conceptual clarity.
Making linkages with static part.
Relevance of the topic or its components for the prelims exam.
The kind of questions that could be asked from a particular topic.
Things you need to focus on and the things you can avoid.
You’ll get a video summary lecture of this discussion covering the most important and relevant aspects of the topic.
A discussion session on Habitat
Evening session: 7pm – 9pm
In the second session, we’ll be focussing on the application and utilization of the information part:
Doubts resolution
Daily mini-tests (MCQs) based on day’s discussions
Explanation, discussion, and Tikdams
Revision of the day’s topics
After this session, you’ll be provided with the PDFs of mini-tests, notes for the next session, and reference material (if required).
Habitat sessions will continue till Prelims 2021 in the next two phases as well.
MCQ discussion on Habitat
Decimate Prelims 2021 progression
Phase 1: Course coverage- 7 weeks
In the first 50 days, we are going to cover 2+ yrs current affairs, associated static topics, and prelims worthy issues. These will be covered in 4+ hours daily classes on Habitat.
1. Notes and Habitat video lectures
Crisp but comprehensive notes are going to cover these current affairs on a preliminary level. These will be followed by discussion sessions on Habitat.
2. Daily Habitat classes
Habitat classes will be conducted by the subject-specific mentors twice a day. Here in the first session, you’ll be having an in-depth discussion and analysis of the scheduled topics. Why a particular topic is important and how it could be asked in prelims will be discussed. In the second session of Habitat class, you’ll be attempting MCQs, resolving doubts, and revising.
By the end of the discussion, you will be provided with video summary lectures, MCQs, mindmaps, and reference material, etc.
Phase 2: Tests and Assessment, Discussion, Tikdams- Till May
In the second phase of Decimate Prelims 2021, we’re going to focus on the application of information; testing and evaluation; doubts resolution and course correction; and learning smart ways of attempting the paper through Tikdams sessions.
1. Test series and discussions
Since learning must be accompanied by regular assessment, Decimate Prelims includes 8 Full-Length tests, 10 Current affairs tests, and 4 CSAT tests. These are high-quality tests covering the most relevant issues for IAS prelims 2021.
Tests will be followed by discussion and analysis on Habitat will help in finding out the mistakes you are committing to and how to address them in a most effective manner.
2. Tikdams and Score boosting sessions
We’ve perfected Tikdams or the art of intelligent elimination. It has the potential of raising your score by 30 marks or more. Score boosting sessions, in this phase, will prepare you and enhance your ability to perform under pressure (& lack of information).
3. Revision and discussion
We’re going to have scheduled revision and doubt resolution sessions on Habitat. These 4+hrs sessions will ensure thorough coverage of the IAS Prelims syllabus.
Phase 3: Probable questions discussion, intensive revision – till prelims
We’ll be providing 300+ most probable topics to you and will be having a discussion session on Habitat around these topics.
Moreover, intensive revision based on listicles, reports, and important topics will continue till your prelims.
Mentorship
Mentorship is an important component of Decimate Prelims 2021. It is essential for guiding your preparation towards the most effective path so that you can make the most out of this program.
On Habitat, you will get mentorship by subject-specific mentors and teachers. You can reach out to them whenever you want and get your doubts resolved as soon as you get them.
Notes and study material
As mentioned above high-quality PDF notes of current affairs, daily MCQs, discussion summaries, etc. are going to be provided. You’ll also be getting an annual subscription to Civils Digest, our monthly magazine.
Other reference material, listicles, etc. will be provided as and when required.
A UK think-tank ‘Royal Institute of International Affairs’ has listed India in ‘Difficult 4’; clubs India with China, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey.
This newscard helps analyse the Western esp. that of the EU’s perception of India and its global image under the present regime.
What is the news?
A report called ‘Global Britain, Global Broker’ has warned the UK government to consider India as more of a rival that a cooperative partner.
It accepts the fact that India is set to be the largest country in the world by population very soon and will have the third-largest economy and defence budget at some point in this decade.
But it cautions that gaining direct national benefit from the relationship, whether economically or diplomatically, will be difficult for the UK government.
The report also accepts India’s importance to the UK as being “inescapable”.
The ‘Difficult Four’
Clubbing India with China, Saudi Arabia and Turkey as the “difficult four”, the report says the Johnson government should be more realistic about developing deeper ties with India.
They may be important to the UK’s commercial interests, but they will be rivals or, at best, awkward counterparts on many of its global goals, the report warns.
India is now classed as a country, destined to count among the UK’s “rivals” or “awkward counterparts” as it pursues its global goals.
India has had bitter (colonial) past
The think-tank strikes a note of caution over the two countries’ shared colonial history proving a stumbling block to the promise of a deeper relationship.
India has a long and consistent record of resisting being corralled into a ‘Western’ camp.
As a result, India is always on the list of countries with which a new UK government commits to engage.
But it should be obvious by now that the idea of a deeper relationship with India always promises more than it can deliver.
The legacy of British colonial rule consistently curdles the relationship.
Indian flaws
The report points to India’s “complex, fragmented domestic politics”, which make it one of the countries resistant to open trade and foreign investment.
It highlights concerns raised by domestic groups as well as the UN over a “crackdown on human rights activists and civil society groups” not being actively challenged by the judiciary.
It raises concern over India’s pursuance of extreme right-winged policies. Indian domestic politics also has entered a more ethnic-nationalist phase, the report argues.
Against this backdrop, the report reflects on the prospect of including India within any new Democratic 10 or D10 coalition of 10 leading democracies.
Try this question from 2019 CS Mains:
Q.What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism? (150W)
UK’s resentment
In a critique of India’s diplomatic behaviour, the report points out that despite border clashes with China, “India did not join the group of countries that criticized China at the UN in July 2019 over HR violations in Xinjiang.
India has also been muted in its criticism of the passage of the new national security law in Hong Kong.
The Supreme Court has admitted a petition filed by the Ministry of Defence (MoD) seeking to exempt armed forces personnel from the ambit of a Constitution Bench judgment of 2018 that decriminalized adultery.
Q. Personnels of the Indian Armed Forces constitute a ‘Distinct Class’.
Discuss this statement in context to the extension of IPC section 497 to the Armed forces.
What was the 2018 historic Judgment?
The Supreme Court had struck down Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code, which criminalized adultery.
It also declared Section 198 of the Criminal Procedure Code as unconstitutional, which deals with the procedure for filing a complaint about the offence of adultery.
Important observations of the judgment
Section 497 was unconstitutional and is violative of Article 21 (Right to life and personal liberty) and Article 14 (Right to equality).
The court observed that two individuals may part if one cheats, but to attach criminality to infidelity is going too far. How married couples deal with adultery is absolutely a matter of privacy.
Besides, there is no data to back claims that abolition of adultery as a crime would result in “chaos in sexual morality” or an increase of divorce.
Any provision of law affecting individual dignity and equality of women invites the wrath of the Constitution.
It’s time to say that a husband is not the master of the wife. Legal sovereignty of one sex over other sex is wrong, ruled the court.
Marriage does not mean ceding autonomy of one to the other. Ability to make sexual choices is essential to human liberty. Even within private zones, an individual should be allowed her choice.
What about Armed forces?
The judgment of 2018 created “instability”. It allowed personnel charged with carrying on an adulterous or illicit relationship to take cover under the judgment.
The bench had then referred the case to the CJI to pass appropriate orders to form a five-judge Bench to clarify the impact of the 2018 judgment on the armed forces.
This case is now being under the observation of the apex court.
Govt. stance over this
The MoD has sought for an exemption to this decriminalization in the petition.
It said that there will always be a concern in the minds of the Army personnel who are operating far away from their families under challenging conditions about the family indulging in untoward activity.
The petition goes on to say that personnel of the Army, Navy and the Air Force were a “distinct class”. They were governed by special legislation, the Army Act, the Navy Act and the Air Force Act.
Adultery amounted to unbecoming conduct and a violation of discipline under these three Acts.
Unlike Section 497, the provisions of the three Acts did not differentiate between a man and a woman if they were guilty of an offence.
Constitutional backing for an exception
These special laws imposed restrictions on the fundamental rights of the personnel, who function in a peculiar situation requiring utmost discipline.
The three laws were protected by Article 33 of the Constitution, which allowed the government to modify the fundamental rights of the armed forces personnel.
The core idea behind govt. proposition
One has to remember that the armed forces exist in an environment wholly different and distinct from civilians. Honour is a sine qua non of the service.
The provisions of the Acts should be allowed to continue to govern the personnel as a “distinct class”, irrespective of the 2018 judgment.
This is because, the discipline necessary for the performance of duty, crucial for national safety, would break down.
It said the court would not, at the time, have been appraised of the different circumstances under which the armed forces operated.
Back2Basics: Article 33 of the Indian Constitution
It deals with the power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part III in their application etc.
Parliament may, by law, determine to what extent any of the rights conferred by this Part shall, in their application to-
(a) the members of the Armed Forces; or
(b) the members of the Forces charged with the maintenance of public order; or
(c) persons employed in any bureau or other organisation established by the State for purposes of intelligence or counterintelligence; or
(d) persons employed in, or in connection with, the telecommunication systems set up for the purposes of any Force, bureau or organisation referred to in clauses (a) to (c), be restricted or abrogated so as to ensure the proper discharge of their duties and the maintenance of discipline among them
Important Announcement: Topics to be covered on 18th January
GS-1 History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution, world wars, redrawal of national boundaries, colonization, decolonization.
Reviews will be provided in a week. (In the order of submission- First come first serve basis). In case the answer is submitted late the review period may get extended to two weeks.
*In case your answer is not reviewed in a week, reply to your answer saying *NOT CHECKED*. If Parth Sir’s tag is available then tag him.
For the philosophy of AWE and payment, check here: Click2Join
The Mars rover ‘Curiosity’ has completed 3,000 Martian days.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which region of Mars has a densely packed river deposit indicating this planet had water 3.5 billion years ago?
(a) Aeolis Dorsa
(b) Tharsis
(c) Olympus Mons
(d) Hellas
Curiosity Rover
Curiosity is an SUV-sized Mars rover designed to explore the Gale crater on Mars as part of NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission
The main mission of Curiosity was “to search areas of Mars for past or present conditions favourable for life, and conditions capable of preserving a record of life.”
It has a suite of instruments:
A gas chromatograph, a mass spectrometer, a tunable laser spectrometer, X-ray diffraction, fluorescence instrument help study the rocks
The Mars Hand Lens Imager (for close-up pictures) and a Mast Camera (to take photos of the surroundings)
An instrument named ChemCam to vaporize thin layers of Martian rocks.
Radiation Assessment Detector to study the radiation environment at the surface of Mars
Rover Environmental Monitoring Station to measure atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, winds, plus ultraviolet radiation levels
Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons instrument to measure subsurface hydrogen
Back2Basics: Martian Day/ Sol
Coincidentally, the duration of a Martian day aka ‘Sol’ is within a few per cent of that of an Earth day, which has led to the use of analogous time units.
A sol is slightly longer than an Earth day. It is approximately 24 hours, 39 minutes, 35 seconds long.
A Martian year is approximately 668 sols, equivalent to approximately 687 Earth days.
Mars has an axial tilt and a rotation period similar to those of Earth.
Thus, it experiences seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter much like Earth.
A team of archaeologists in Indonesia has discovered what may be the world’s oldest known cave painting dating back to more than 45,000 years.
Try this PYQ:
Q.There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh caves
(b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
Sulawesi Cave Paintings
The cave painting depicts a wild boar endemic to the Sulawesi island of Indonesia, where the painting was found.
The central Indonesian island, which occupies an area of over 174,000 sq. km, is situated between Asia and Australia.
It has a long history of human occupation.
Significance of the painting
The archaeologists’ note that the dated painting of the Sulawesi warty pig seems to be the world’s oldest surviving representational image of an animal.
The painting was made using red ochre pigment and depicts a pig with a short crest of upright hairs and a pair of horn-like facial warts in front of the eyes.
These pigs have been hunted by humans for tens of thousands of years and are the most commonly depicted animal in the ice age rock art of the island.
It suggests that they have long been used as food and form a “focus of creative thinking and artistic expression” for people of that time.
The painting was first discovered in 2017 as part of surveys the team was carrying out with the Indonesian authorities.
For these painting archaeologists used a method called U-series isotope analysis, which uses calcium carbonate deposits that form naturally on the cave wall surface to determine its age.
They used a calcium carbonate deposit, also referred to as “cave popcorn” that had formed on the rear foot of one of the pig figures.
They were able to figure out a minimum age for the painting at around 45,500 years, which means the painting was made before this.
Sulawesi: Oldest human habitat
Try memorizing these Islands of the Indo-Pacific in their East-West alternations.
Sulawesi island contains some of the oldest directly dated rock art in the world and also some of the oldest evidence for the presence of hominins beyond the southeastern limits of the Ice Age Asian continent.
Hominins include modern humans, extinct human species and our immediate ancestors.
Homo sapiens are the first modern humans who evolved from their hominid predecessors between 200,000-300,000 years ago.
It is estimated that these modern humans started migrating outside of Africa some 70,000-100,000 years ago.
Even so, it is not yet clear as to when modern humans first colonised Sulawesi.
It is a handicraft of Kashmir that was brought by Muslims saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani from Persia in the 14th century to medieval India.
It is based primarily on paper pulp, and is a richly decorated, colourful artefact; generally in the form of vases, bowls, or cups (with and without metal rims), boxes, trays, bases of lamps, and many other small objects.
These are made in homes, and workshops, in Srinagar, and other parts of the Kashmir Valley, and are marketed primarily within India, although there is a significant international market.
The product is protected under the Geographic Indication Act 1999 and was registered by the Controller General of Patents Designs and Trademarks.
Back2Basics: Geographical Indication (GI)
The World Intellectual Property Organisation defines a GI as “a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that are due to that origin”.
GIs are typically used for agricultural products, foodstuffs, handicrafts, industrial products, wines and spirit drinks.
Internationally, GIs are covered as an element of intellectual property rights under the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.
They have also covered under the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.
2020 prelims was a shocker for many aspirants, first-timers and veterans both were left confused after the exam. Before you go full-on with pre-2021 preparation a detailed analysis of previous year UPSC prelims papers is essential.
Watch Sajal sir discuss some of the doubtful questions from IAS Pre 2020 GS paper1.
There are three Open Tests, scheduled on 17th Jan, 24th Jan, and 31st Jan 2021, before the start of our DECIMATE PRELIMS 2021 program (details at the bottom). These tests are essential to get awareness on your current prelims preparation level. More details here.
It is a holistically designed crash course for the UPSC IAS prelims exam. To make it more efficient and outcome-oriented we’ve integrated it with Habitat.
Decimate Prelims 2021 @ Habitat is a three-phased program that ensures full coverage of current affairs syllabus, related static parts, tests, intensive discussions, and revision.
We’re going more intensive and comprehensive to make sure that you comfortably go beyond 130+ marks and literally decimate prelims.
UPSC is evolving, are you? Bury the old ways of IAS Prelims preparation.
How daily Habitat classes will be held?
Since we’re going to be comprehensive and effective, we’ve planned Habitat classes twice a day (2+2 hrs/day) as per a schedule.
Forenoon session: 10am – 12:30pm
You’ll be provided with the base notes and reading material beforehand. In the Habitat class the focus will be on:
Explanation and conceptual clarity.
Making linkages with static part.
Relevance of the topic or its components for the prelims exam.
The kind of questions that could be asked from a particular topic.
Things you need to focus on and the things you can avoid.
You’ll get a video summary lecture of this discussion covering the most important and relevant aspects of the topic.
A discussion session on Habitat
Evening session: 7pm – 9pm
In the second session, we’ll be focussing on the application and utilization of the information part:
Doubts resolution
Daily mini-tests (MCQs) based on day’s discussions
Explanation, discussion, and Tikdams
Revision of the day’s topics
After this session, you’ll be provided with the PDFs of mini-tests, notes for the next session, and reference material (if required).
Habitat sessions will continue till Prelims 2021 in the next two phases as well.
MCQ discussion on Habitat
Decimate Prelims 2021 progression
Phase 1: Course coverage- 7 weeks
In the first 50 days, we are going to cover 2+ yrs current affairs, associated static topics, and prelims worthy issues. These will be covered in 4+ hours daily classes on Habitat.
1. Notes and Habitat video lectures
Crisp but comprehensive notes are going to cover these current affairs on a preliminary level. These will be followed by discussion sessions on Habitat.
2. Daily Habitat classes
Habitat classes will be conducted by the subject-specific mentors twice a day. Here in the first session, you’ll be having an in-depth discussion and analysis of the scheduled topics. Why a particular topic is important and how it could be asked in prelims will be discussed. In the second session of Habitat class, you’ll be attempting MCQs, resolving doubts, and revising.
By the end of the discussion, you will be provided with video summary lectures, MCQs, mindmaps, and reference material, etc.
Phase 2: Tests and Assessment, Discussion, Tikdams- Till May
In the second phase of Decimate Prelims 2021, we’re going to focus on the application of information; testing and evaluation; doubts resolution and course correction; and learning smart ways of attempting the paper through Tikdams sessions.
1. Test series and discussions
Since learning must be accompanied by regular assessment, Decimate Prelims includes 8 Full-Length tests, 10 Current affairs tests, and 4 CSAT tests. These are high-quality tests covering the most relevant issues for IAS prelims 2021.
Tests will be followed by discussion and analysis on Habitat will help in finding out the mistakes you are committing to and how to address them in a most effective manner.
2. Tikdams and Score boosting sessions
We’ve perfected Tikdams or the art of intelligent elimination. It has the potential of raising your score by 30 marks or more. Score boosting sessions, in this phase, will prepare you and enhance your ability to perform under pressure (& lack of information).
3. Revision and discussion
We’re going to have scheduled revision and doubt resolution sessions on Habitat. These 4+hrs sessions will ensure thorough coverage of the IAS Prelims syllabus.
Phase 3: Probable questions discussion, intensive revision – till prelims
We’ll be providing 300+ most probable topics to you and will be having a discussion session on Habitat around these topics.
Moreover, intensive revision based on listicles, reports, and important topics will continue till your prelims.
Mentorship
Mentorship is an important component of Decimate Prelims 2021. It is essential for guiding your preparation towards the most effective path so that you can make the most out of this program.
On Habitat, you will get mentorship by subject-specific mentors and teachers. You can reach out to them whenever you want and get your doubts resolved as soon as you get them.
Notes and study material
As mentioned above high-quality PDF notes of current affairs, daily MCQs, discussion summaries, etc. are going to be provided. You’ll also be getting an annual subscription to Civils Digest, our monthly magazine.
Other reference material, listicles, etc. will be provided as and when required.
The article explains the challenge in the vaccination program for the Covid-19 vaccine.
Issue of lack of data about the vaccine
In the COVID vaccine roll out, there is no clear data for either of the two vaccines proposed for use in the programme.
We do not know if they provide protection for life, for a year or six months, its efficacy among the elderly or the very sick or in stopping new infections.
Getting such data requires at least three years and cannot be obtained in a few months.
Guidelines for implementing vaccine programme
Given these limitations, the government has drawn up strategic guidelines for implementing an vaccine programme covering 30 crore people by July.
The guidelines draw upon the knowledge of running national campaigns acquired over three decades of implementing the Universal Immunisation Programme.
These guidelines detail the skills, roles and responsibilities of the required human resources, logistics for delivering vaccines at point of use, physical infrastructure, monitoring systems based on digital platforms and feedback systems for reporting adverse events.
The approach involves 19 departments, donor organisations and NGOs at the national, state, district and block level.
The guidelines also mention the priority criteria — caregivers, front line workers of the departments of health, defence, municipalities and transportation; persons above the age of 50 and those below 50 having diabetes, hypertension, cancers and lung diseases.
Issues with the guidelines
Of the 28,932 cold chain points, half are in the five southern states, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Combined with poor human resources — doctors, nurses, pharmacists — a weak private sector, poor safety and hygiene standards, frequent power outages, poor infrastructure, the capacity to implement with the expected speed, quality and accuracy is daunting.
The immunisation can disrupt routine health service delivery — antenatal care, national programmes like those pertaining to TB or other immunisation drives.
While data for the above-50-year-olds is available in the electoral rolls, line listing of the under 50s with comorbidities can be challenging.
Not only are urban-rural variations substantial, but urban areas have weak public health infrastructure and a multiple number of private providers due to the poor implementation of the Clinical Establishment Act, 2010.
Patient tracking can be problematic.
The non-availability of efficacy data could also impact the procurement and supply of vaccines, result in huge wastage, and can introduce scope for errors and duplication.
Way forward
Central to the success of the roll out will be the confidence of the people in the vaccines.
Coming out of this messy situation is necessary and one option — as adopted for the polio eradication programme — is to establish an independent team of experts under the aegis of the WHO to ensure the safety of the vaccine.
This will create confidence in the community and international authorities as well.
Conclusion
it is important to understand that vaccination is an incomplete solution to ending the epidemic, since the virus is mutating. Adopting safe behaviour is.
Try memorizing these Islands of the Indo-Pacific in their East-West alternations.
