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GS Paper: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

  • Scientists at CERN Create Gold from Lead

    Why in the News?

    In a recent breakthrough at CERN’s ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), scientists observed that near-collisions of lead ions in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) can result in the formation of gold atoms and other novel nuclei.

    How was Lead converted into Gold?

    • In ultra-peripheral collisions at the Large Hadron Collider, lead atoms passed close without touching, creating strong electromagnetic fields.
    • These fields released photons that caused some lead atoms to lose 3 protons and 2 neutrons, transforming them into gold-203.
    • Between 2015–2018, 86 billion gold atoms were created—just 29 picograms—scientifically important but not commercially valuable.

    About the Large Hadron Collider (LHC):

    • The LHC has been working since September 2008 and is the world’s largest particle accelerator.
    • Development: Between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists, and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries.
    • Location: It lies in a 27-kilometre tunnel under the France–Switzerland border, near Geneva, and is operated by CERN.
    • Purpose: It smashes protons or lead atoms together to help scientists study the smallest building blocks of the universe.
    • Working Mechanism: About 9,600 magnets guide particles in a circle using strong magnetic fields.
    • Speed: Particles travel at 99.999999% the speed of light, creating conditions like the Big Bang.
    • Particles Studied: The LHC focuses on quarks (which come in six types) and gluons, which hold quarks together using the strong nuclear force.
    • Members: 24 countries spans across the Europe. Japan and US are Observer.
    • India and LHC: 
      • India signed a cooperation agreement with CERN in 1991 and joined its Large Hadron Collider project in 1996; it became an Associate Member in 2016 after gaining Observer status in 2002.
      • India also helped design LHC components such as superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, and accelerator protection systems.

    About the ALICE Experiment:

    • ALICE is designed to study heavy-ion collisions, mainly using lead atoms.
    • Objective: It recreates matter similar to that formed just after the Big Bang, helping us understand the early universe.
    • Detection Range: ALICE can study both large particle blasts and rare, low-energy events with high precision.
    • Size and Setup: It weighs 10,000 tons, measures 26 × 16 × 16 metres, and sits 56 metres underground.
    • Members: As of 2024, ALICE includes over 1,900 scientists from 174 institutes across 39 countries, including India.
    • India’s Contribution: Key instruments like the Photon Multiplicity Detector for ALICE and the Hadron Outer Calorimeter for CMS.

     

    [UPSC 2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?

    Options: (a) European Space Agency (b) European Organization for Nuclear Research* (c) International Atomic Energy Agency (d) National Aeronautics and Space administration

     

  • Gold’s Cosmic Origins from Magnetar Flares

    Why in the News?

    A new study by Columbia University, suggests that the universe may have an alternate mechanism for producing gold — not just in neutron star collisions, as previously believed, but also in magnetar flares.

    Gold's Cosmic Origins from Magnetar Flares

    What are Magnetars?

    • Magnetars are a rare type of neutron star with immensely strong magnetic fields, among the most powerful in the universe.
    • They are formed when a massive star collapses during a supernova, leaving a highly dense stellar core.
    • Due to magnetic instability, magnetars sometimes release intense flares of X-rays and gamma rays.
    • These flares can be millions of times stronger than typical solar flares.
    • A magnetar’s magnetic field is estimated to be about a thousand times stronger than that of ordinary neutron stars.

    r-Process in a Magnetar Flare:

    • The r-process (rapid neutron-capture process) forms heavy elements like gold, platinum, and uranium by rapidly attaching neutrons to atomic nuclei.
    • It was earlier believed to occur mainly in neutron star mergers.
    • In a 2024 study, scientists analysed a 2004 magnetar flare followed by delayed gamma-ray emissions, recorded by NASA’s Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.
    • The radiation patterns matched those of radioactive decay from r-process elements, suggesting neutron-rich nuclei were produced.
    • Around 1.9 septillion kilograms of matter was ejected at near-light speeds, marking the first direct evidence of r-process nucleosynthesis in a magnetar flare.

    Implications for Gold Formation:

    • The study shows that magnetar flares may also produce gold and other heavy elements, not just neutron star collisions.
    • This implies such elements could have formed earlier in the universe than previously believed.
    • The findings broaden our understanding of the origins of chemical elements in space.
    • It confirms that multiple astrophysical events contribute to the formation of heavy elements.
    • It also offers a new perspective on cosmic gamma-ray bursts and ancient stellar compositions.
    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidences for the continued expansion of the universe?

    1. Detection of microwaves in space

    2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space

    3. Movement of asteroids in space

    4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Scientists create first ‘Pangenome’ of Asian Rice

    Why in the News?

    Chinese researchers has developed a first-of-its-kind rice pangenome by integrating genetic data from 144 wild and cultivated rice varieties from Asia (similar to the Human Genome Project).

    About the Rice Pangenome:

    • A pangenome includes both the core genes shared by all members of a species and the unique genes found in specific varieties, offering a complete view of genetic diversity.
    • The rice pangenome was built using data from 144 wild and cultivated rice varieties across Asia, making it the first comprehensive genomic resource for rice.
    • Researchers led the project from the Chinese Academy of Sciences to explore rice evolution and domestication.
    • Researchers used PacBio HiFi sequencing and advanced computational tools to detect variations, uncovering 3.87 billion base pairs of genetic material previously missing from the standard rice genome.

    Key Findings:

    • The study identified 69,531 genes, including 28,907 core genes common to all varieties and 13,728 genes unique to wild rice.
    • About 20% of all genes were exclusive to wild rice, offering potential for trait improvement in cultivated varieties.
    • The study confirmed that all Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) originated from Or-IIIa, a subgroup of Oryza rufipogon.
    • Japonica rice was first domesticated in China, while indica rice arose later via hybridization as japonica spread across Asia.
    • Wild-specific genes were linked to environmental adaptation, phenotypic flexibility, and regenerative traits, offering insights for future crop resilience.
    • Bridging the genetic gap between wild and cultivated rice could lead to climate-resilient and high-yield varieties.

    India’s Contribution:

    • Rice is India’s staple food and the main monsoon crop, grown from June to September.
    • In 2024–25, India produced a record 220 million tonnes of rice over 51,000 hectares, with an average yield of 4.2 tonnes per hectare.
    • The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed two genome-edited rice varieties — Samba Mahsuri and MTU 1010 — known for higher yields and drought resistance; these are currently under testing.
    [UPSC 2001] Assertion (A): Scientists can cut apart and paste together DNA molecules at will, regardless of the source of the molecules. Reason (R): DNA fragments can be manipulated using restriction endonucleases and DNA ligases.

    Options: (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A * (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is fasle but R is true

     

  • Explained: How Air Defence Systems work

    Why in the News?

    Tensions between the two countries increased as Pakistan launched missiles and drones early Thursday to target 15 Indian military sites. In response, India hit air defence radars in Pakistan, neutralizing one in Lahore.

    What are the three main operations that constitute an effective air defence system?

    • Detection: The first step involves identifying incoming threats like aircraft, drones, or missiles using radars or satellites. Eg: India’s Rohini Radar can detect multiple aerial targets and is part of the Akash Air Defence System.
    • Tracking: Once a threat is detected, it must be tracked continuously using radar, infrared, or laser-based sensors to determine its speed, altitude, and trajectory. Eg: The S-400 Triumf uses advanced tracking radars to simultaneously monitor and engage multiple targets.
    • Interception: After detection and tracking, the threat is neutralized using fighter aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-aircraft artillery. Eg: India’s Akash missile system intercepts enemy aircraft or missiles at medium ranges.

    Why is the suppression of enemy air defence systems (SEAD) crucial for establishing air superiority?

    • Enables Safe Aerial Operations: Neutralising enemy air defences allows friendly aircraft to operate freely without the constant threat of being shot down. Eg: During the 1991 Gulf War, the U.S. first targeted Iraqi SAM sites to ensure air superiority.
    • Supports Ground Forces: Air superiority ensures effective air cover for ground troops, enabling safer movement, airstrikes, and supply drops. Eg: NATO SEAD missions in Kosovo helped protect allied ground forces from Serbian air defences.
    • Disrupts Enemy Command and Control: Destroying radar and communication nodes weakens the enemy’s ability to coordinate defences. Eg: Israeli SEAD missions against Syrian defences in 1982 crippled Syria’s radar and SAM systems early in the conflict.

    Which types of weapons are commonly used by nations to intercept and neutralise aerial threats?

    • Fighter Aircraft (Interceptors): Fast and agile aircraft used to engage enemy fighters and bombers in air-to-air combat. Eg: India’s Dassault Rafale jets can intercept and neutralise enemy aircraft using beyond-visual-range missiles.
    • Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs): Ground- or ship-based missiles that target aircraft, helicopters, or incoming missiles. Eg: The S-400 system can engage threats up to 400 km away with high precision.
    • Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA): High-rate-of-fire guns used as a last line of defence, particularly against low-flying targets.Eg: The L70 Bofors gun is used by India for low-altitude air defence.

    How do electronic warfare (EW) systems contribute to air defence without directly engaging enemy aircraft or missiles?

    • Radar Jamming: EW systems emit signals that interfere with enemy radar, making it difficult to detect or lock on to targets. Eg: The U.S. Navy’s EA-18G Growler jams enemy radar to protect allied aircraft.
    • Deception (Decoys): They send false signals to mislead enemy sensors, creating phantom targets or hiding real ones. Eg: DRDO’s “Samudrika” decoy system confuses enemy missile guidance.
    • Communication Disruption: EW tools disrupt enemy communication networks, limiting their coordination and response. Eg: Tactical jammers can cut off enemy ground-to-air communications during attacks.
    • Disabling Precision Weapons: EW can block or misguide the guidance systems of smart bombs and missiles. Eg: GPS jammers can prevent guided missiles from striking their intended targets.
    • Protection of Own Assets: EW defends friendly aircraft and installations by masking their electromagnetic signature. Eg: Su-30MKI fighters are equipped with EW suites to evade missile lock-ons.

    Where can surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) be launched from?

    • Land-Based Platforms: SAMs are commonly deployed on fixed launchers or mobile vehicles for ground defence. Eg: India’s Akash missile system is mounted on trucks for mobility and rapid deployment.
    • Naval Warships: SAMs are launched from warships to protect against aerial and missile threats at sea. Eg: The Barak-8 missile is deployed on Indian Navy destroyers like INS Kolkata.
    • Sub-surface or Strategic Facilities: Some strategic SAM systems are integrated into hardened, underground bunkers or launch silos for protection. Eg: S-400 systems are often placed in secure, semi-permanent launch sites for long-range interception.

    What are the different classes of SAMs used by India?

    • Long-Range SAMs: These systems are designed to engage high-altitude and long-range targets, including ballistic missiles and aircraft. Eg: The S-400 Triumf system, which has a range of up to 400 km, is a long-range SAM used by India to intercept aircraft and missiles.
    • Medium-Range SAMs: These systems are mobile and effective in engaging threats at intermediate ranges, typically between 50-100 km. Eg: The Akash missile system, developed by DRDO, is a medium-range SAM designed to protect tactical areas.
    • Short-Range SAMs (MANPADS): These are portable, man-carried systems used to defend against low-flying targets such as helicopters or drones. Eg: The Igla MANPAD, which is used by Indian forces for short-range air defence, can target low-flying aircraft and drones.

    Conclusion: India’s air defence system integrates advanced radar, tracking, and interception capabilities through various SAMs, including long, medium, and short-range systems, ensuring comprehensive protection against aerial threats across diverse platforms.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence missile system different from any other system presently available in the world?

    Linkage: Air defence systems are vital in modern warfare for controlling the skies and protecting against enemy air strikes, including missiles. Understanding how air defence systems generally work (detection, tracking, interception methods) is essential context for discussing the features and differences of a specific system like the S-400 missile system mentioned in the question. 

  • Kosmos 482 Mission

    Why in the News?

    A 500-kg piece of a Soviet spacecraft, part of the Kosmos 482 mission launched in 1972, is expected to crash back to Earth.

    About Kosmos 482 Mission:

    • Kosmos 482 was a Soviet space probe launched on March 31, 1972 as part of the Venera Program, aimed at exploring Venus.
    • It was launched just four days after its twin mission, Venera 8, which successfully landed on Venus 117 days later.
    • The mission’s goal was to:
      • Study Venus’s atmosphere and surface
      • Demonstrate technological and scientific superiority during the Cold War
    • Kosmos 482 was equipped with instruments to measure:
      • Temperature, pressure, and wind speed
      • Atmospheric gases and rock composition
      • Capable of transmitting data back to Earth
    • Venus was a target due to:
      • Speculation about life beneath its thick clouds
      • Its strategic importance in space exploration rivalry
    • Under the broader Venera Program (1961–1984):
      • 28 missions were launched toward Venus
      • 13 probes entered the atmosphere
      • 10 probes landed, but could only function for 23 minutes to 2 hours due to harsh surface conditions
    [UPSC 2014] Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?

    Spacecraft: Purpose

    1. Cassini-Huygens : Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth.

    2. Messenger : Mapping and investigating.

    3. Voyager 1 and 2 : Exploring the outer solar system.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

     

  • Cosmic Clumpiness and the S8 Tension

    Why in the News?

    New research suggests that understanding the “clumpiness” of matter, measured by Sigma-8 (S8) Tension, could unlock key insights into the universe’s structure and complexity.

    What is S8?

    • S8 is a measure used by scientists to understand the distribution of matter across the universe, indicating how “clumpy” or evenly spread out the matter (like galaxies, stars, and dark matter) is.
    • High S8 tension means matter is clumped together in certain regions, while low S8 means it’s evenly distributed.
    • Scientists use S8 to study matter, including dark matter, which is invisible but makes up most of the universe.
    • The measurement of S8 helps explain how the universe fits together and has evolved since the Big Bang.
    • Recently, conflicting measurements of S8 have caused confusion, raising questions about our understanding of the universe.

    Implications for the ΛCDM Model:

    • The ΛCDM model (Lambda Cold Dark Matter) is the standard model explaining the universe’s structure, suggesting it’s mainly composed of dark matter and dark energy.
    • This model assumes that dark energy is causing the universe’s accelerating expansion.
    • S8 discrepancies may challenge the ΛCDM model, indicating a potential gap in our understanding of dark energy or dark matter.
    • Possible Implications:
      • Revised Theories: Scientists may need to adjust their model of the universe due to conflicting S8 values.
      • Re-thinking Dark Energy: If S8 measurements don’t align with predictions, dark energy might not behave as expected.
      • New Discoveries: The S8 tension could suggest undiscovered forces or particles influencing matter behavior.
      • Better Observations: Improved telescopes and surveys, like the Rubin Legacy Survey, may help clarify why S8 measurements conflict with predictions.
    [UPSC 2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    (1) It is he world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic km of ice. (2) It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter. (3) It is buried deep in the ice. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • New RNA-Based Approach to Combat Plant Viruses

    Why in the News?

    Recently, a team of scientists from Germany reported a breakthrough in combating the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) through an innovative RNA-based antiviral agent.

    About Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV):

    • CMV is one of the most widespread and destructive plant viruses, affecting over 1,200 plant species, including important food crops such as cucumbers, melons, and cereals.
    • The virus is transmitted by aphids, tiny insects that spread the virus as they feed on plants, making outbreaks difficult to control.
    • In India, CMV causes significant yield losses in crops like bananas, pumpkins, and cucumbers, leading to mosaic discoloration, stunted growth, and unviable fruits.
    • The economic impact of CMV includes both direct financial losses from reduced crop yields and the indirect costs of pest management.

    RNA Silencing Methods discussed (HIGS vs SIGS): 

    RNA silencing is a natural defense mechanism that plants use to protect themselves from viral infections.

    Two RNA-based technologies, Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) and Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS), have been developed to enhance plant immunity against diseases like CMV.

    [1] Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS):

    • HIGS involves genetically modifying plants to produce dsRNA, which activates the plant’s immune system to fight off the virus.
    • This method provides continuous protection and long-term immunity throughout the plant’s lifecycle.
    • However, it faces challenges such as regulatory issues, high production costs, and the potential for viruses to evolve resistance over time.

    [2] Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS):

    • SIGS, unlike HIGS, does not require genetic modification. Instead, plants are treated with RNA sprays containing dsRNA that targets specific viruses.
    • This method is cost-effective, non-GMO, and can be applied to a variety of crops.
    • However, SIGS provides short-term protection, may be ineffective due to random RNA mixtures, and its effectiveness can be reduced by environmental factors such as sunlight, rain, and soil microbes.
    [UPSC 2019] RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?

    1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.

    2. It can be used in developing therapies for-the treatment of cancer.

    3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.

    4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 4 only

     

  • [pib] Measuring Helium Abundance in the Sun

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) have successfully estimated the abundance of Helium in the Sun’s photosphere with precision for the first time.

    [pib] Measuring Helium Abundance in the Sun

    About Helium in the Sun’s Photosphere:

    • Helium is the second most abundant element in the Sun after Hydrogen and plays a key role in understanding solar composition, opacity, and energy transport.
    • However, measuring its precise abundance in the Sun’s photosphere has been challenging due to the absence of observable Helium spectral lines in visible light.
    • Traditionally, Helium abundance was estimated using indirect methods like extrapolating data from hotter stars, solar wind observations, and seismological studies of the Sun’s interior.
    • These methods lacked direct photospheric observations, making the estimates less accurate.
    • Accurate measurements of Helium are essential for modelling the Sun’s opacity and energy transport. This also has broader implications for understanding the composition of other stars.

    Novel Method Recently Discovered:

    • Researchers from the IIA introduced a novel method to directly estimate Helium abundance in the Sun’s photosphere.
    • This technique uses spectral features from Magnesium (Mg) and Carbon (C), overcoming the challenge of no direct Helium spectral lines.
    • Spectral lines from Mg, C, and hydrogenated molecules (MgH, CH, C2) were used to infer Helium abundance.
    • Equivalent Width analyses and spectrum synthesis techniques helped model the behavior of these elements in varying Helium-to-Hydrogen ratios.
    • The Helium-to-Hydrogen ratio in the Sun’s photosphere was found to be 0.1, consistent with previous studies. This confirms the validity of the new method.
    [UPSC 2023] Diffusion of light in the atmosphere takes place due to:

    Options: (a) Carbon dioxide (b) Dust particles* (c) Helium (d) Water vapors

     

  • Role of Lipids in Protein Function and Co-Evolution

    Why in the News?

    New research by CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad suggest that lipids (along with DNA), particularly in mitochondrial membranes, are not just structural elements but play an integral role in the function and evolution of proteins.

    About Lipids and RC1 in Cells:

    Lipids:

    • Lipids, including fats, phospholipids, and sterols, make up to 30% of the dry weight of cells.
    • They are crucial for membrane integrity and various biological processes.
    • They vary in fatty acid composition and length, influenced by genetics, diet, and environmental factors.
    • They form a bilayer in membranes, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails inward, providing stability and enabling protein function.
    • Role of Lipids in Cells:
      • Lipids form the bilayer, providing flexibility and stability for membrane proteins that perform functions like receptor binding and ion channelling.
      • They like cardiolipin stabilize RC1 and other respiratory complexes, aiding energy production.

    RC1 (Respiratory Complex 1):

    • RC1 is a protein complex in the mitochondrial membrane, crucial for cellular respiration and energy production.
    • It is composed of 44 proteins, some synthesized in the cytoplasm and others in mitochondria.
    • Mutations in RC1 lead to diseases due to its vital role in respiration.

    Lipid-Protein Co-evolution as per new Research:

    • New research highlights the co-evolution of proteins and lipids, especially in mitochondrial membranes, where proteins interact with specific lipids from their own kingdom (plant or animal).
    • Plant lipids, richer in polyunsaturated fatty acids, are more flexible, aiding stress resistance, while animal lipids evolve differently to meet their needs.
    • Lipid-protein co-evolution adds complexity to cellular evolution, with implications for human health and disease treatment.
    [UPSC 2001] Which of the following cell organelles play the most significant role in protein synthesis?

    Options: (a) Lysosome and Centrosome (b) Endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosome* (c) Golgi apparatus and Mitochondria (d) Lysosome and Mitochondria

     

  • LEDA 1313424: The Bullseye Galaxy

    Why in the News?

    NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope recently discovered the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424), which contains 9 rings, an unprecedented number.

    This finding offers new insights into galaxy evolution and the possibility of the galaxy evolving into a Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) galaxy.

    Bullseye Galaxy

    About the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424):

    • The Bullseye Galaxy is unique for containing 9 rings, an unprecedented number in the study of ringed galaxies.
    • Most ringed galaxies typically have 2 or 3 rings, making this discovery significant.
    • The rings are believed to have formed after a collision with a blue dwarf galaxy about 50 million years ago, causing ripples in the gas and creating star-forming regions that became the rings.
    • While individual stars’ orbits stayed the same, groups of stars gathered, forming distinct rings over time.
    • This discovery offers valuable insights into galaxy interactions and the rare formation of multiple rings.

    What are Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) Galaxies?

    • GLSB Galaxies are large, diffuse galaxies with low surface brightness and fewer stars than typical galaxies, making them appear dimmer.
    • These galaxies contain vast hydrogen disks, the fuel for star formation, but their low hydrogen density prevents many stars from forming.
    • GLSB galaxies are believed to contain significant amounts of dark matter, affecting their mass distribution.
    • They have less dense inner regions and challenge current cosmological models due to their hydrogen content and low surface brightness.

    Bullseye Galaxy and Its Possible Evolution into a GLSB Galaxy:

    • It shares traits with GLSB galaxies, such as its extended disk and hydrogen content.
    • Researchers suggest that the Bullseye Galaxy might evolve into a GLSB galaxy, providing insights into the formation of such galaxies and the distribution of dark matter in the universe.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following phenomena:

    1. Light is affected by gravity. 2. The Universe is constantly expanding. 3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

    Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in the media?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3