PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2021] “There arose a serious challenge to the Democratic State System between the two World Wars.” Evaluate the statement.
Linkage: The period “between the two World Wars”, providing a broader historical context related to World War II which is the focus of Article. It prompts discussion on the challenges to democratic systems during this era. |
Mentor’s Comment: Eighty years ago, on May 8, 1945, the Second World War officially ended in Europe when Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allied forces in Reims and Berlin. This day is celebrated as Victory in Europe (VE) Day, but in India, it often goes unnoticed, as the years of the war (1939-1945) are mainly remembered as the final phase of the struggle for independence. It is important to remember that Indians never ignored their duties to the world, whether in war or peace, as shown by the lives of two lesser-known Indians.
Today’s editorial examines the contributions of lesser-known Indian heroes like Kolachala Sitaramaiah and Idris Hasan Latif during World War II. This content will be useful for GS Paper I (World History) and GS Paper II (International Relations).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On May 9th, Victory in Europe Day is also a time to honor the brilliance of scientists like Kolachala Sitaramaiah and the courage of soldiers like Idris Hasan Latif during World War II.
Who was Kolachala Sitaramaiah?
- Kolachala Sitaramaiah (July 15, 1899 – September 29, 1977) was a renowned chemist and is often referred to as the “Father of Chemotology,” the field dedicated to the study of lubricants and combustible materials in technology.
- Born in Uyyuru, Andhra Pradesh, he pursued advanced studies abroad, where he made substantial contributions to the understanding of lubricants, particularly their role in machinery and the development of motor oils.
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What contributions did he make during the Second World War?
- Fuel Innovation for Soviet Tanks: He developed kerosene-based fuels and specialized lubricants that significantly enhanced the performance and maneuverability of Soviet tanks in sub-zero battlefield conditions. Eg: These innovations were critical during the Battle of Kursk (1943), where Soviet T-34 tanks outperformed Nazi Panzer and Tiger tanks.
- Scientific Expertise Redirected to War Effort: Although he volunteered for frontline combat, Soviet authorities recognized his intellectual value and redirected him to research, stating his brain was a weapon, not a target. Eg: His work helped overcome early mechanical failures in Soviet tanks, crucial to halting the Nazi ground offensive.
- Foundation for Future Scientific Fields: His wartime research laid the groundwork for chemmotology (tribochemistry) — the study of chemical changes from mechanical energy — and later contributed to plasma research important for nuclear fusion. Eg: His observations of incendiary weapons inspired deeper scientific inquiry into the fourth state of matter — plasma.
What were the challenges faced by Indian pilots like Idris Latif during their missions in the Second World War?
- Inferior Aircraft and Equipment: Indian pilots were initially assigned outdated biplanes, putting them at a disadvantage in combat situations. Eg: Idris Latif flew patrols along the North West Frontier in old aircraft while British pilots used advanced models.
- Dangerous Combat Environments: They flew missions in extremely hostile conditions, including thick jungles, poor visibility, and constant threat of enemy fire. Eg: In Burma, Idris flew the Hawker Hurricane against Japanese Zero fighters, often from muddy, short landing strips.
- Health Hazards and Illness: Pilots endured unhygienic, disease-prone environments, which led to severe illnesses. Eg: Idris Latif fell gravely ill in the humid, mosquito-infested jungles of Burma but refused to abandon his squadron.
- Lack of Recognition and Discrimination: Despite their service, Indian pilots often faced racial bias and were under-acknowledged by the colonial British authorities. Eg: Idris and others had to prove themselves repeatedly before being entrusted with frontline roles in Europe.
- Emotional and Moral Dilemmas: Indian soldiers and pilots had to reconcile serving a colonial power while also yearning for India’s independence. Eg: Despite these conflicts, Idris remained committed to fighting fascism and later chose to stay in independent India post-Partition.
When did Idris Hasan Latif become the Chief of the Indian Air Force?
- Appointment as Air Chief Marshal: Idris Hasan Latif became the 10th Chief of the Indian Air Force in 1978, marking a significant moment in IAF history. He was the first Muslim to hold the top position in the Indian Air Force.
- Recognized for Wartime Service and Leadership: His distinguished service during the Second World War and later roles earned him this high command. His performance in combat and leadership roles post-independence showcased his capabilities.
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How did he contribute to strengthening India-France defence relations?
- Role as India’s Ambassador to France (1985–1988): After retiring as Air Chief Marshal, he was appointed Ambassador to France, a key position for defence diplomacy. Eg: His presence in Paris helped facilitate high-level strategic discussions on defence cooperation.
- Leveraging Wartime Bonds: His personal connection to World War II and Normandy fostered shared respect and trust with French counterparts. Eg: He visited Normandy during his tenure, recalling his war contributions, which resonated deeply with French officials.
- Military-to-Military Cooperation: He actively promoted exchanges between Indian and French armed forces and encouraged joint training initiatives.
- Laying Groundwork for Future Defence Deals: His tenure helped build the foundation of trust that later enabled critical defence procurements. Eg: The Rafale fighter jet deal, though signed much later, benefited from the diplomatic groundwork laid during his ambassadorship.
- Promoting Indigenous Capability through Collaboration: He supported technology transfers and joint development possibilities with France. Eg: His diplomatic efforts aligned with India’s interest in acquiring not just equipment but also technical know-how.
What is the evolution of the Indian Air Force (IAF)?
- Formation and Early Years (1932–1947): The IAF was established in 1932 as an auxiliary force under British rule, participating in World War II with limited autonomy. Eg: Indian pilots flew biplanes in the Burma campaign during WWII.
- Post-Independence Expansion (1947–1960s): After 1947, the IAF was reorganized as an independent force, expanding its fleet and training infrastructure. Eg: IAF played a crucial role in the 1947–48 Kashmir conflict using Dakotas to airlift troops.
- Modernisation after Wars (1970s–1990s): Following wars with Pakistan and China, India focused on acquiring advanced aircraft and building indigenous capability. Eg: Introduction of MiG-21s, Miraj 2000 and establishment of HAL’s fighter production line.
- Technology Integration and Strategic Reach (2000s): The IAF integrated AWACS, aerial refuellers, precision-guided munitions, and enhanced air defence systems. Eg: Induction of Sukhoi Su-30 MKI significantly improved long-range strike capability.
- Next-Gen Air Power and Global Partnerships (2010s–Present): IAF has adopted network-centric warfare, multirole fighters, and AI-based systems, while deepening global defence ties. Eg: Procurement of Rafale jets from France and participation in multilateral exercises like Red Flag and Garuda.
What is the role of France in the Indian Air Force?
- Strategic Defence Partner Since Early Years: France has been a consistent defence partner for India, supplying key aircraft and technology since the 1950s. Eg: France provided Ouragan (Toofani) jets in the 1950s, among IAF’s first jet fighters.
- Supplier of Multirole Combat Aircraft: French aircraft have strengthened IAF’s strike capabilities through advanced multirole platforms. Eg: The Dassault Mirage 2000, inducted in 1985, played a decisive role in the Kargil War (1999).
- Rafale Fighter Jet Deal: The acquisition of 36 Rafale jets enhanced India’s air dominance with advanced avionics, weaponry, and capabilities. Eg: Rafale jets were inducted starting in 2020 under a government-to-government deal with France.
- Technology Transfer and Maintenance Support: France has supported India through tech transfer, joint production, and robust maintenance infrastructure. Eg: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) maintained and upgraded Mirage 2000s with French collaboration.
- Joint Exercises and Defence Diplomacy: India and France regularly conduct joint air exercises that enhance IAF’s tactical exposure and interoperability. Eg: The Garuda series of exercises improve coordination between French and Indian air forces.
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Way forward:
- Deepen Strategic Collaboration in Emerging Technologies: India and France should jointly invest in cutting-edge aerospace technologies such as AI-based combat systems, stealth UAVs, and hypersonic platforms to future-proof IAF capabilities.
- Expand Joint Training and Indo-French Defence Industrial Base: Encourage co-development and co-production of next-generation aircraft and defence systems under Make in India, while scaling up joint military exercises like Garuda for enhanced operational synergy.
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Why in the News?
India and the United Kingdom have signed a landmark Free Trade Agreement (FTA), under which 99% of Indian exports to the U.K. will have no import duties, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and U.K. Prime Minister Keir Starmer announced on Tuesday.
What are the key benefits for India under the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United Kingdom?
- Zero-Duty Access for 99% of Indian Exports: This significantly enhances India’s export competitiveness in the U.K. market. Eg: Indian gems and jewellery, apparel, and engineering goods will enter the U.K. without customs duties, making them more attractive to British buyers.
- Social Security Relief for Indian Workers in the U.K: Indian professionals and their employers will be exempt from social security contributions for up to 3 years. Eg: Indian IT professionals on temporary assignments in the U.K. will take home higher net salaries, encouraging Indian firms to send more workers abroad.
- Boost to Services Trade and Investment Flows: The FTA facilitates easier movement of professionals and investors, promoting service sector growth and foreign direct investment (FDI). Eg: Indian consultancy firms or startups may find it easier to operate or invest in the U.K., supporting India’s goal of becoming a services export hub.
Who are the major Indian stakeholders expressing optimism about the FTA with the U.K., and why?
- Engineering Goods Sector: Expects a significant boost in exports due to reduced or zero tariffs. Eg: The Engineering Export Promotion Council (EEPC) projects engineering exports to the U.K. to nearly double to $7.55 billion by 2029-30.
- Apparel and Textile Industry: Gains price competitiveness in the U.K. market through zero-duty access. Eg: Indian garments become more competitive against Bangladeshi or Vietnamese exports, enhancing market share in Europe.
- Gems and Jewellery Sector: Welcomes duty-free access for high-value products, boosting profitability. Eg: Indian jewellers can export gold and diamond jewellery to the U.K. with lower cost structures.
- Information Technology (IT) and Professional Services: Benefits from easier mobility and recognition of qualifications for professionals. Eg: Indian IT firms can deploy professionals to the U.K. more efficiently, with less visa friction.
- Indian Employers of Workers in the U.K: Gain from exemption from social security contributions for Indian workers temporarily in the U.K. Eg: Firms hiring Indian talent in the U.K. will save on mandatory contributions for 3 years, reducing costs and encouraging cross-border placements.
Why are Indian farmer organisations opposing the India-U.K. FTA?
- Threat from Imported Agricultural Products: Reduced tariffs on U.K. agri-exports like lamb, salmon, and dairy products may hurt Indian farmers. Eg: Cheaper U.K. lamb and salmon could enter the Indian market, undercutting local producers who already operate on thin margins.
- Concerns Over Low-Income, Low-Margin Conditions: Indian farmers fear intensified competition could worsen their already precarious economic situation. Eg: Many Indian farmers rely on traditional and small-scale farming, which cannot compete with heavily subsidised U.K. agriculture.
- Lack of Protective Mechanisms: The FTA lacks clear safeguards to protect Indian farmers from market shocks due to sudden import surges. Eg: No countervailing duties or quotas have been announced to cushion farmers from a flood of imported agri-goods.
How could the India-U.K. FTA influence future trade agreements with the European Union and the United States?
- Establishing a Negotiation Template: The India-U.K. FTA may serve as a reference framework for structuring future trade deals. Eg: If India agrees to liberalise tariffs on 85% of imports from the U.K., similar expectations may arise in talks with the EU and U.S..
- Precedent for Sensitive Sector Concessions: Concessions on agricultural and alcohol imports set a precedent for market access in sensitive sectors. Eg: The cut in whiskey and gin tariffs for the U.K. may lead to similar demands from U.S. bourbon producers or EU wine exporters.
- Pressure on Domestic Manufacturing and Policy: As India lowers duties and opens its markets, pressure may grow on its industrial and trade policy in upcoming FTAs. Eg: With less than 2% share in global exports, India’s manufacturing sector could be exposed if future FTAs follow the U.K. model without strong support policies.
Way forward:
- Safeguard Vulnerable Sectors: Introduce protective clauses such as trigger safeguards, quotas, or phased liberalisation to shield Indian farmers and MSMEs from import surges. Eg: Gradual tariff cuts with review mechanisms for sensitive agri-products.
- Strengthen Domestic Competitiveness: Enhance manufacturing capacity, R&D incentives, and export infrastructure to fully capitalise on new market access. Eg: Support engineering and textile sectors with technology upgradation and logistics hubs.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.
Linkage: The India-UK FTA, and its potential use as a template for agreements with the EU and the US mentioned in article, can be viewed within the broader context of strengthening India’s economic and strategic ties with Western countries. This PYQ explores the reasons behind such partnerships, which provides a geopolitical backdrop to India’s trade negotiations with the UK and other Western nations.
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Why in the News?
Tensions between the two countries increased as Pakistan launched missiles and drones early Thursday to target 15 Indian military sites. In response, India hit air defence radars in Pakistan, neutralizing one in Lahore.
What are the three main operations that constitute an effective air defence system?
- Detection: The first step involves identifying incoming threats like aircraft, drones, or missiles using radars or satellites. Eg: India’s Rohini Radar can detect multiple aerial targets and is part of the Akash Air Defence System.
- Tracking: Once a threat is detected, it must be tracked continuously using radar, infrared, or laser-based sensors to determine its speed, altitude, and trajectory. Eg: The S-400 Triumf uses advanced tracking radars to simultaneously monitor and engage multiple targets.
- Interception: After detection and tracking, the threat is neutralized using fighter aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-aircraft artillery. Eg: India’s Akash missile system intercepts enemy aircraft or missiles at medium ranges.
Why is the suppression of enemy air defence systems (SEAD) crucial for establishing air superiority?
- Enables Safe Aerial Operations: Neutralising enemy air defences allows friendly aircraft to operate freely without the constant threat of being shot down. Eg: During the 1991 Gulf War, the U.S. first targeted Iraqi SAM sites to ensure air superiority.
- Supports Ground Forces: Air superiority ensures effective air cover for ground troops, enabling safer movement, airstrikes, and supply drops. Eg: NATO SEAD missions in Kosovo helped protect allied ground forces from Serbian air defences.
- Disrupts Enemy Command and Control: Destroying radar and communication nodes weakens the enemy’s ability to coordinate defences. Eg: Israeli SEAD missions against Syrian defences in 1982 crippled Syria’s radar and SAM systems early in the conflict.
Which types of weapons are commonly used by nations to intercept and neutralise aerial threats?
- Fighter Aircraft (Interceptors): Fast and agile aircraft used to engage enemy fighters and bombers in air-to-air combat. Eg: India’s Dassault Rafale jets can intercept and neutralise enemy aircraft using beyond-visual-range missiles.
- Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs): Ground- or ship-based missiles that target aircraft, helicopters, or incoming missiles. Eg: The S-400 system can engage threats up to 400 km away with high precision.
- Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA): High-rate-of-fire guns used as a last line of defence, particularly against low-flying targets.Eg: The L70 Bofors gun is used by India for low-altitude air defence.
How do electronic warfare (EW) systems contribute to air defence without directly engaging enemy aircraft or missiles?
- Radar Jamming: EW systems emit signals that interfere with enemy radar, making it difficult to detect or lock on to targets. Eg: The U.S. Navy’s EA-18G Growler jams enemy radar to protect allied aircraft.
- Deception (Decoys): They send false signals to mislead enemy sensors, creating phantom targets or hiding real ones. Eg: DRDO’s “Samudrika” decoy system confuses enemy missile guidance.
- Communication Disruption: EW tools disrupt enemy communication networks, limiting their coordination and response. Eg: Tactical jammers can cut off enemy ground-to-air communications during attacks.
- Disabling Precision Weapons: EW can block or misguide the guidance systems of smart bombs and missiles. Eg: GPS jammers can prevent guided missiles from striking their intended targets.
- Protection of Own Assets: EW defends friendly aircraft and installations by masking their electromagnetic signature. Eg: Su-30MKI fighters are equipped with EW suites to evade missile lock-ons.
Where can surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) be launched from?
- Land-Based Platforms: SAMs are commonly deployed on fixed launchers or mobile vehicles for ground defence. Eg: India’s Akash missile system is mounted on trucks for mobility and rapid deployment.
- Naval Warships: SAMs are launched from warships to protect against aerial and missile threats at sea. Eg: The Barak-8 missile is deployed on Indian Navy destroyers like INS Kolkata.
- Sub-surface or Strategic Facilities: Some strategic SAM systems are integrated into hardened, underground bunkers or launch silos for protection. Eg: S-400 systems are often placed in secure, semi-permanent launch sites for long-range interception.
What are the different classes of SAMs used by India?
- Long-Range SAMs: These systems are designed to engage high-altitude and long-range targets, including ballistic missiles and aircraft. Eg: The S-400 Triumf system, which has a range of up to 400 km, is a long-range SAM used by India to intercept aircraft and missiles.
- Medium-Range SAMs: These systems are mobile and effective in engaging threats at intermediate ranges, typically between 50-100 km. Eg: The Akash missile system, developed by DRDO, is a medium-range SAM designed to protect tactical areas.
- Short-Range SAMs (MANPADS): These are portable, man-carried systems used to defend against low-flying targets such as helicopters or drones. Eg: The Igla MANPAD, which is used by Indian forces for short-range air defence, can target low-flying aircraft and drones.
Conclusion: India’s air defence system integrates advanced radar, tracking, and interception capabilities through various SAMs, including long, medium, and short-range systems, ensuring comprehensive protection against aerial threats across diverse platforms.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence missile system different from any other system presently available in the world?
Linkage: Air defence systems are vital in modern warfare for controlling the skies and protecting against enemy air strikes, including missiles. Understanding how air defence systems generally work (detection, tracking, interception methods) is essential context for discussing the features and differences of a specific system like the S-400 missile system mentioned in the question.
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Why in the News?
Donald Trump plans to announce that the US will officially refer to the Persian Gulf as the “Arabian Gulf” or “Gulf of Arabia”, aligning with the preferences of Arab nations.
About Persian Gulf
- The Persian Gulf is a marginal sea of the Indian Ocean, located in Western Asia.
- It is connected to the Arabian Sea through the Strait of Hormuz, a critical maritime chokepoint for global oil shipments.
- The gulf spans an area of approximately 251,000 km².
- Its average depth is around 50 meters, with a maximum depth of about 90 meters.
- The total coastline is roughly 5,117 km, with Iran possessing the longest share (~1,536 km).
- The gulf is bordered by:
- North: Iran
- Southwest: Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE
- Northwest: Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain
- Key islands:
- Qeshm Island (Iran) — the largest island in the Persian Gulf (~1,491 km²), nearly 2.5 times the size of Bahrain.
- Bahrain — a sovereign archipelago state with over 50 islands, and home to a major US naval base.
- It is recognized officially by the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO) as the “Persian Gulf”.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.
Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct |
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Why in the News?
A 500-kg piece of a Soviet spacecraft, part of the Kosmos 482 mission launched in 1972, is expected to crash back to Earth.
About Kosmos 482 Mission:
- Kosmos 482 was a Soviet space probe launched on March 31, 1972 as part of the Venera Program, aimed at exploring Venus.
- It was launched just four days after its twin mission, Venera 8, which successfully landed on Venus 117 days later.
- The mission’s goal was to:
- Study Venus’s atmosphere and surface
- Demonstrate technological and scientific superiority during the Cold War
- Kosmos 482 was equipped with instruments to measure:
- Temperature, pressure, and wind speed
- Atmospheric gases and rock composition
- Capable of transmitting data back to Earth
- Venus was a target due to:
- Speculation about life beneath its thick clouds
- Its strategic importance in space exploration rivalry
- Under the broader Venera Program (1961–1984):
- 28 missions were launched toward Venus
- 13 probes entered the atmosphere
- 10 probes landed, but could only function for 23 minutes to 2 hours due to harsh surface conditions
| [UPSC 2014] Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?
Spacecraft: Purpose
1. Cassini-Huygens : Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth.
2. Messenger : Mapping and investigating.
3. Voyager 1 and 2 : Exploring the outer solar system.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only |
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Why in the News?
The Quad nations—India, Australia, Japan, and the United States—conducted a Tabletop Exercise (TTX) in Honolulu, Hawaii to simulate the launch of the Indo-Pacific Logistics Network (IPLN).
About IPLN (Indo-Pacific Logistics Network)
- The IPLN is a Quad-led initiative focused on coordinating shared logistics for civilian disaster response across the Indo-Pacific region.
- It aims to enable the rapid deployment of humanitarian aid during natural disasters such as cyclones, tsunamis, and public health emergencies.
- The initiative strengthens interoperability, resource-sharing, and real-time coordination among the four Quad countries — India, the US, Japan, and Australia.
- Key features of IPLN include digital logistics mapping, joint resource planning, and real-time tracking capabilities.
- IPLN was launched through a Tabletop Exercise (TTX) held in Honolulu, Hawaii from April 28 to May 2, 2025.
- The initiative complements other Quad efforts like the Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) and the Quad Pandemic Preparedness Workshop.
- IPLN reinforces the Quad’s broader goal of acting as :a “force for good” in the Indo-Pacific region.
Back2Basics: QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue)
- The QUAD is a strategic forum comprising India, the United States, Japan, and Australia, aiming to promote a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
- It does not have a formal structure but functions through summits, ministerial meetings, joint exercises, and policy alignment.
- Its core objectives include countering China’s influence, and supporting democratic values, human rights, and the rule of law.
- The group originated in 2004 during the Indian Ocean tsunami relief efforts and was formally proposed in 2007 by Japanese PM Shinzo Abe.
- Although suspended in 2008, the Quad was revived in 2017 due to emerging regional challenges and cooperation needs.
- Notable activities include the Malabar Naval Exercises, and initiatives like IPMDA, Quad Fellowship, Open RAN, and AI-ENGAGE, emphasizing humanitarian aid, disaster relief, and emerging technology collaboration.
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| [UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements:
1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.
2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.
3. Bangladesh-China -India -Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
To channel investments into clean-energy projects and climate-resilient infrastructure, the Finance Ministry has released a draft document titled ‘Framework of India’s Climate Finance Taxonomy’.
What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy?
- A CFT is a classification system that defines which economic activities qualify as climate-friendly or sustainable investments.
- It helps investors, financial institutions, and policymakers channel funds into low-emission and climate-resilient projects.
- It acts as a safeguard against green-washing, where non-sustainable initiatives are falsely labelled as green.
- It supports the mobilization of finance necessary to achieve global climate goals, including Net Zero targets.
- It offers a structured decision-making framework to ensure that investments deliver measurable environmental benefits.
About India’s Draft ‘Climate Taxonomy’ (May 2025)
- The Finance Ministry released the draft ‘Framework of India’s Climate Finance Taxonomy’ to help meet India’s Net Zero by 2070 goal while maintaining energy access.
- It categorizes activities as:
- Climate Supportive Activities: Those that reduce GHG emissions, enable adaptation, or promote clean tech R&D.
- Climate Transition Activities: Those that encourage gradual progress, especially in hard-to-abate sectors like steel, iron, and cement.
- It aligns with the national vision of ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’.
- It includes key sectors such as power, mobility, buildings, agriculture, food, and water security.
- The framework was first announced in the Union Budget 2025.
Global Context and Negotiation Relevance:
- A standard taxonomy is critical in global forums like the Conference of Parties (COP) to resolve disputes over climate finance commitments.
- Developing nations, including India, advocate for grants and technology transfers, while developed countries often include private investments in their finance counts.
- At the Baku Climate Conference, developed countries pledged $300 billion annually by 2035, far below the $1.35 trillion required.
- India’s taxonomy aims to provide a clear benchmark for climate-related financial flows, promoting transparency, credibility, and trust in international climate funding.
| [UPSC 2015] With reference to ‘Green Climate Fund’ is/are correct?
1. It is intended to assist the developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change.
2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP, OECD, Asian Development Bank and World Bank.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2023] Give out the major sources of terror funding in India and the efforts being made to curtail these sources. In the light of this, also discuss the aim and objective of the ‘No Money for Terror (NMFT)’ Conference recently held at New Delhi in November 2022.
Linkage: Pakistan’s terror infrastructure, including ISI funding, Gulf-based private donors, diaspora contributions through charities, business operations, money laundering via hawala networks, narcotics trafficking, and cryptocurrency. This question directly asks about the sources of terror funding, which is a central theme in the source. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Soviet-Afghan War in 1979 was a turning point when Pakistan’s intelligence agency (ISI), with support from U.S. funding, started building a network of jihadi groups. This network has since developed into the advanced terrorist groups we see today. Pakistan intentionally supported these fighters, who had various goals, including attacking Kashmir, gaining control in Afghanistan, causing sectarian violence, and fighting ideological battles. Recent data shows that terrorism sponsored by Pakistan has been rising again in the region.
Today’s editorial looks at Pakistan’s long-standing terrorist network using open-source intelligence, declassified documents, and academic studies. This content would help in GS Paper II (International Relation) and GS Paper III (Internal Security).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Pakistan’s security forces have supported terrorist groups for a long time, seeing them as useful for their goals. Since 2008, Pakistan has repeatedly been added to and removed from the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) ‘grey list’ because it has not effectively stopped the funding of terrorism.
What role did the Soviet-Afghan War of 1979 play in the evolution of Pakistan’s terror infrastructure?
- ISI’s Strategic Empowerment with U.S. and Saudi Funding: During the war, Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) became the main conduit for channeling billions of dollars in U.S. (CIA) and Saudi funds to Afghan mujahideen fighting Soviet forces. Eg: This funding network empowered the ISI to build covert training camps and logistical bases, which later supported outfits like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Haqqani Network.
- Creation of a Jihadi Ecosystem and Proxy Network: The war institutionalised jihad as a tool of foreign policy, with ISI actively recruiting, training, and radicalising fighters. These fighters, once trained, were later redeployed for operations in Kashmir, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. Eg: The Harakat ul-Mujahidin (HUM), originally formed to fight in Afghanistan, later became one of the first Pakistani terror outfits to target Indian interests in Kashmir.
- Spread of Radical Ideology through Madrassas and Seminaries: To support the Afghan jihad, Pakistan encouraged the growth of radical madrassas, often funded by Gulf donors, to indoctrinate youth. These institutions outlived the war and became feeders for future terror groups. Eg: Many madrassas aligned with Ahl-e-Hadith and Deobandi ideologies became recruiting hubs for groups like Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) and LeT.
Where are the major training camps and headquarters of Pakistan-supported terrorist groups located?
- Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK): PoK serves as a key launchpad and training ground for anti-India terror operations, especially focused on Kashmir. Eg: Training camps of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) have been reported in Muzaffarabad and Kotli, where cadres are prepared for infiltration into India.
- Punjab Province (Especially Lahore and Bahawalpur): Several extremist groups operate openly or under charitable fronts in Punjab, with strong logistical and financial networks. Eg: The headquarters of Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) is based in Bahawalpur, and Jamaat-ud-Dawa (JuD), the front of LeT, has operated from Muridke near Lahore.
- Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP): The rugged terrain along the Afghanistan border provides safe havens for jihadist groups with transnational reach. Eg: The Haqqani Network, linked to the Afghan Taliban, has operated out of North Waziristan, conducting cross-border attacks into Afghanistan.
How is the terror network in Pakistan financed and sustained despite international pressure?
- State and Deep State Support: Elements within Pakistan’s military and intelligence agencies, particularly the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), have been accused of providing logistical, financial, and strategic support to terrorist groups to serve foreign policy objectives, especially in India and Afghanistan. Eg: The ISI’s backing of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) was exposed during investigations into the 2008 Mumbai attacks, where LeT operatives received training, funds, and guidance.
- Charities and Front Organizations: Terrorist groups often operate under the guise of charitable organizations to raise funds both domestically and internationally. These organizations collect donations in the name of humanitarian relief, which are then diverted for militant activities. Eg: The Falah-e-Insaniat Foundation (FIF), a front for Jamaat-ud-Dawa (JuD), raised significant funds until it was banned for links to LeT.
- Drug Trafficking, Hawala, and Extortion: Illicit economies, including narcotics trafficking, smuggling, extortion, and the hawala system (an informal money transfer network), are widely used by terrorist groups to fund their operations. Eg: The Afghan-Pakistan border region, particularly in Balochistan and former FATA, is a major route for drug trafficking, which provides revenue to groups like the Haqqani Network and TTP.
Why has Pakistan repeatedly appeared on the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) grey list rather in black list?
- Partial Compliance and Political Commitments: Pakistan has often shown partial compliance with FATF action plans, such as enacting anti-terror financing laws or prosecuting select terror operatives. These steps, while often symbolic or limited, provide just enough movement to avoid blacklisting. Eg: After being grey-listed in 2018, Pakistan passed laws to regulate charitable donations and froze some accounts linked to UN-designated terrorists like Hafiz Saeed.
- Geopolitical Considerations and Diplomatic Shielding: Global powers, especially China, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia, have used their influence within FATF to shield Pakistan from being blacklisted due to strategic and political interests, including Pakistan’s role in regional stability and Afghanistan. Eg: In several FATF meetings, China and Turkey have openly opposed efforts to blacklist Pakistan, arguing that it has made progress.
How did the Indian government execute OPERATION SINDOOR?
- Response Triggered: Launched in retaliation to the April 22, 2025, Pahalgam attack that killed 26 civilians. Eg: The attack by a group linked to LeT prompted the operation.
- Precision Airstrikes: Executed 24 missile strikes on nine targeted sites in Pakistan’s Punjab and administered Kashmir regions, lasting about 23 minutes. Eg: Sites in Bahawalpur and Muzaffarabad were among those hit.
- Advanced Military Assets: Deployed Rafale jets with precision-guided SCALP missiles and AASM bombs to ensure accurate targeting with minimal collateral damage. Eg: The use of advanced munitions highlighted India’s operational efficiency.
- Disruption of Terror Infrastructure: Targeted key terrorist facilities such as training camps, recruitment centers, and armories linked to groups like LeT and JeM. Eg: A strike in Bahawalpur reportedly affected close aides of a major terror leader.
- Aftermath and Escalation: The operation led to heightened tensions, with Pakistan condemning the strikes and both sides engaging in artillery exchanges along the Line of Control. Eg: The subsequent border clashes underscored the operation’s significant impact on regional stability.
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Way forward:
- Global Accountability and Financial Sanctions: Strengthen FATF enforcement and international cooperation to impose targeted sanctions on Pakistan-based terror networks and their sponsors. Eg: Revive monitoring mechanisms to ensure closure of front charities like JuD and FIF.
- Regional Counter-Terror Framework: India and like-minded nations should push for a South Asia-focused multilateral counter-terrorism initiative with intelligence sharing and cross-border coordination. Eg: Build on QUAD and SCO platforms to diplomatically isolate state-sponsored terrorism.
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Why in the News?
India ranks 130th out of 193 countries in the 2025 Human Development Index (HDI), up from 133rd in 2022.
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
- Composite Measure of Development: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index that measures a country’s overall development based on three key factors: life expectancy (health), education (mean and expected years of schooling), and standard of living (GNI per capita).
- Ranking and Insights: HDI ranks countries on a scale from 0 to 1, where a higher value indicates better human development.
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Why has India’s HDI improved?
- Health (Life Expectancy at Birth): HDI measures the average number of years a person can expect to live, reflecting the overall health conditions in a country. Eg: In 2023, India’s life expectancy increased to 72 years, marking a significant improvement since 1990, when it was just 58.6 years.
- Education (Mean Years of Schooling and Expected Years of Schooling): HDI considers the average number of years adults aged 25 and older have spent in school (mean years of schooling) and the number of years a child of school-entry age can expect to receive (expected years of schooling). Eg: In 2023, children in India are expected to stay in school for 13 years on average, up from 8.2 years in 1990.
- Standard of Living (Gross National Income per Capita): HDI includes the per capita income adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP), which gives a sense of the country’s economic prosperity and standard of living. Eg: India’s GNI per capita increased from $2,167 in 1990 to $9,046 in 2023, reflecting a growth in economic well-being.
- Inequality Adjustments: HDI adjusts for inequality in each of its three dimensions—health, education, and standard of living—through the Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI). The more inequality there is in a country, the lower the adjusted HDI score will be. Eg: India’s HDI value of 0.685 in 2023 was influenced by inequalities, including gender and income disparities, which the report highlighted as a key challenge.
- Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): HDI is indirectly linked to the MPI, which measures poverty beyond income, including deprivations in health, education, and living standards. Eg: India has made significant progress in reducing multidimensional poverty, with 13.5 crore people escaping poverty between 2015-16 and 2019-21.
How has the pandemic affected India’s HDI recovery?
- Health Impact: The pandemic strained India’s healthcare system, leading to higher mortality rates and disruptions in healthcare services, which affected life expectancy. Eg: The pandemic slowed India’s progress towards improving life expectancy, though it rebounded in the subsequent years, reaching 72 years in 2023.
- Education Disruptions: School closures and lack of access to online education hindered educational outcomes, especially for underprivileged children. Eg: While the expected years of schooling improved, the pandemic delayed educational progress, particularly in rural areas.
- Economic Setbacks: The lockdowns and economic disruptions due to the pandemic led to a sharp contraction in economic activities, affecting income levels and jobs, particularly in the informal sector. Eg: India’s GNI per capita growth faced a slowdown, though it eventually rebounded, reaching $9,046 in 2023.
What challenges remain in improving India’s HDI?
- Income Inequality: Despite progress, income disparity remains a major challenge, with the rich benefiting disproportionately from economic growth, while the poor remain marginalized. Eg: India’s HDI is impacted by a 30.7% loss due to income inequalities, which continues to drag down overall development outcomes.
- Gender Disparities: The gender gap in labor force participation and political representation limits progress in improving India’s HDI. Women’s workforce participation remains low, and the gender wage gap is significant. Eg: The female labor participation rate stood at 41.7% in 2023-24, but a supportive ecosystem for women’s work retention and political representation is still lacking.
How can India use AI to address development while avoiding inequality? (Way forward)
- AI in Public Service Delivery: AI can streamline public services, making them more efficient, transparent, and accessible, especially to marginalized communities. Eg: AI-driven systems can help in targeted welfare distribution, ensuring resources like food and healthcare reach those most in need, reducing administrative inefficiencies.
- Inclusive Education and Skill Development: Leveraging AI for personalized learning can bridge gaps in educational access and quality, particularly for underserved areas. Eg: AI-based platforms like Byju’s and other ed-tech initiatives provide tailored education, improving learning outcomes for students in rural and remote areas.
- AI for Job Creation and Economic Inclusion: AI can be used to create new job opportunities and enhance existing ones, especially in sectors like agriculture, healthcare, and manufacturing. Ensuring that AI adoption leads to inclusive economic growth can help reduce inequality. Eg: AI-driven agricultural technologies can optimize crop yields and provide real-time data to farmers, increasing productivity and income, especially for those in rural areas.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] Despite Consistent experience of High growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive.
Linkage: The paradox of economic growth not translating into high human development indicators, which is a central theme when discussing India’s HDI rank and the challenges despite improvements. It also touches upon inclusive development, another concept related to the HDR’s focus on reducing inequalities
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Why in the News?
U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance recently mentioned that the U.S. is ready to work more closely with India on energy and defense.
What are the main areas of India-U.S. cooperation?
- Energy Security: Strengthening access to sustainable, reliable, and affordable energy resources is central to India-U.S. ties. Eg: In 2024, both countries signed an MoU to diversify supply chains for critical minerals like lithium and rare earths, crucial for clean energy and EV technologies.
- Defence and Technology Cooperation: Enhancing strategic and technological collaboration helps address common security challenges and promote innovation. Eg: Under the iCET framework, India and the U.S. are collaborating on defence co-production and advanced systems, including Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) for civilian nuclear use.
- Mobility and Innovation Exchange: Facilitating people-to-people ties and high-tech partnerships boosts economic growth and shared innovation ecosystems. Eg: India and the U.S. are working to ease skilled labor mobility and co-develop innovation corridors in areas like semiconductors and AI.
Why is a minerals partnership vital for both countries?
- Strategic Resource Security: Critical minerals are essential for clean energy, electronics, and defence, and current supply chains are overly dependent on China. Eg: China controls nearly 90% of global rare earth processing, creating a strategic vulnerability for both India and the U.S.
- Economic and Technological Collaboration: Joint exploration and processing of minerals supports cross-sector innovation and economic resilience. Eg: India and the U.S. signed an MoU in 2024 to co-invest in third-country mineral projects in Africa and South America.
- Supply Chain Diversification: A minerals partnership helps build resilient, transparent, and traceable supply chains to withstand geopolitical shocks. Eg: Proposal for an India-U.S. Mineral Exchange and blockchain-based traceability standards to ensure secure mineral sourcing.
How can nuclear energy help India meet its energy goals?
- Low-Carbon Energy Source: Nuclear energy provides a firm, low-emission alternative to fossil fuels, aiding in decarbonisation efforts. Eg: Nuclear power contributes just over 8 GW currently but is crucial for India’s net-zero by 2070 targets.
- Base Load Power Stability: It ensures continuous electricity supply, complementing the intermittency of solar and wind sources. Eg: Nuclear plants provide uninterrupted power, stabilising the grid as renewable sources fluctuate.
- High Energy Output with Small Land Use: Nuclear energy offers high output per unit of land, which is vital in land-scarce regions. Eg: Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) have lower land requirements and are suitable for water-scarce areas due to air-cooling.
- Industrial Decarbonisation Support: Nuclear power can drive clean energy transitions in sectors like steel and AI-based data centres. Eg: SMRs can power green steel manufacturing and meet rising energy needs of AI infrastructure.
- Strategic Energy Independence: Reducing reliance on fossil fuel imports enhances national energy security. Eg: With a 100 GW nuclear target by 2047, India aims to lower its dependence on imported oil and coal.
Which reforms are key to expanding India’s nuclear capacity?
- Faster Deployment and Standardisation: Accelerate construction timelines and adopt standardized reactor designs to lower costs and ensure quick scaling of nuclear energy capacity. Eg: Reducing construction time from 9 to 6 years could reduce electricity costs by 8%, helping India meet its 2047 nuclear capacity goal.
- Private Sector Involvement: Facilitate private investments by providing clear incentives and long-term purchase commitments, especially for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). Eg: SMRs, with lower capital expenditure and land requirements, become financially viable when supported by private capital and stable offtake agreements.
- Legislative and Policy Reforms: Amend existing laws to encourage private investment in nuclear energy and enhance the ease of doing business in this sector. Eg: Amending the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, would allow private companies to participate in nuclear projects, boosting investment and technological growth.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Expansion of Nuclear Power Infrastructure: The government has set a target to achieve 100 GW of nuclear power by 2047, and is working on commissioning new plants to achieve this, including collaborations with international partners. Eg: The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant and new reactors under construction are key initiatives to expand nuclear capacity.
- Regulatory and Policy Reforms: India has been reforming nuclear energy laws, including the amendment of the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, to attract private sector participation and investment in nuclear projects. Eg: The approval for the transfer of Small Modular Reactor (SMR) technology by Holtec International to Indian companies.
- International Collaborations and Technology Transfer: India is fostering strategic partnerships with global nuclear technology leaders to enable technology transfer, co-production, and joint ventures for nuclear power development. Eg: India’s collaboration with the U.S. on advanced nuclear technology and the approval of SMRs to meet energy goals.
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Way forward:
- Enhanced Public-Private Partnerships: Encourage greater private sector participation through incentives, policy clarity, and long-term contracts, especially for emerging technologies like Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). This will drive innovation, investment, and rapid scaling of nuclear energy.
- Strengthen International Collaboration and Technology Transfer: Expand partnerships with global leaders in nuclear technology to accelerate the adoption of advanced reactors and improve operational efficiency, positioning India as a global leader in clean nuclear energy.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] With growing scarcity of fossil fuels, the atomic energy is gaining more and more significance in India. Discuss the availability of raw material required for the generation of atomic energy in India and in the world.
Linkage: Nuclear energy as a “next frontier” for India-U.S. linkages and a reliable source complementing renewables. This question directly addresses the significance and resources for atomic/nuclear energy in India.
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Why in the News?
The Union Culture Ministry has successfully halted the auction of the sacred ‘Piprahwa’ Buddhist relics by Hong Kong.
About the Piprahwa Relics:
- The Piprahwa relics were discovered in 1898 by William Claxton Peppe, an English engineer, during an excavation in Siddharthnagar district, UP, near the Nepal border.
- The site is believed to be ancient Kapilavastu, the capital of the Shakya republic, where Prince Siddhartha (later the Buddha) lived before his renunciation.
- Peppe excavated a stupa and unearthed a large stone coffer buried beneath it.
- The coffer contained bone fragments (believed to be Buddha’s cremated remains), caskets of soapstone and crystal, a sandstone coffer, and several gold ornaments and gemstones.
- The British Crown claimed the relics under the Indian Treasure Trove Act of 1878.
- A majority of the artifacts — about 1,800 pearls, rubies, topaz, sapphires, and gold sheets — were transferred to the Indian Museum in Kolkata.
Stupas with Buddha’s Relics:
- After the Buddha’s death (Mahaparinirvana), his cremated relics were divided among 8 kingdoms and a Brahmin named Drona, who coordinated their distribution.
- Each recipient built a Stupa to enshrine their share of the relics, creating important pilgrimage sites and early centers of Buddhist worship.
- The 9 stupas were located in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalivana.
- Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) redistributed the relics from these stupas into thousands of new stupas across his empire.
- The stupa at Ramagrama is unique because it is believed to remain untouched and still holds the original relics.
- A typical early Buddhist stupa included a hemispherical mound (anda), a square railing (harmika), a central pillar (yashti) with umbrellas (chatra), and a path for circumambulation (pradakshinapatha).
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:
1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None |
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Why in the News?
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) has approved a proposal under the Revised SHAKTI (Scheme to Harness and Allocate Koyla Transparently in India) Policy to enhance coal availability for Central/State Sector Thermal Power Plants and Independent Power Producers (IPPs).
About the SHAKTI Policy:
- The SHAKTI Policy, launched in 2017 by the Ministry of Power, created a transparent mechanism to allocate coal linkages to thermal power plants lacking Fuel Supply Agreements (FSAs).
- It replaced the earlier nomination-based system with auction-based and tariff-based bidding, enhancing fairness and transparency.
- While government-owned plants continue receiving coal through nominations, private power producers must obtain coal via competitive bidding.
- The policy aimed to reduce coal imports, promote the domestic coal industry, and improve energy self-sufficiency.
- It also intended to revive stressed assets in the power sector, indirectly supporting public sector banks and infrastructure growth.
Key Features of the Revised SHAKTI Policy (2024):
- The revised 2024 policy simplifies the system by merging eight criteria into just two windows, enhancing the ease of doing business.
- Window-I allocates coal at notified prices to central and state government utilities, their joint ventures, and subsidiaries, including those with PPAs under Section 62 of the Electricity Act.
- Window-II permits coal and imported coal-based producers to acquire coal through premium-based auctions for 12 to 25 years, without requiring a PPA.
- The policy encourages pithead plants, supports new capacity planning, and allows Imported Coal-Based (ICB) plants to transition to domestic coal, reducing import reliance.
- Existing FSA holders can now purchase coal beyond 100% of their Annual Contracted Quantity (ACQ) during periods of peak demand.
- Unrequisitioned surplus electricity can be sold on power exchanges, boosting plant utilization.
- The policy imposes no additional financial burden on coal companies.
- Beneficiaries include thermal power plants, Coal India, SCCL, railways, state governments, and end consumers.
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to coal-based thermal power plants in India, consider the following statements:
1. None of them uses seawater.
2. None of them is set up in water-stressed district.
3. None of them is privately owned.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None* |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has officially notified the Cashless Treatment of Road Accident Victims Scheme, 2025, which came into force on May 5, 2025.
In 2023, India reported over 4.80 lakh road accidents and 1.72 lakh fatalities, highlighting the urgent need for such a scheme.
About the Cashless Treatment Scheme for Road Accident Victims, 2025:
- The scheme provides financial coverage up to ₹1.5 lakh per person, per accident, for a maximum of seven days from the date of the accident.
- All victims, including those without health insurance, are eligible for treatment under this scheme.
- This initiative was introduced following a Supreme Court directive, urging action under Section 162(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
- The scheme aims to deliver critical care during the “golden hour”, defined under Section 2(12A) as the first hour after a traumatic injury, when prompt treatment can save lives.
Key Features of the Scheme:
- Treatment must be provided immediately and is fully covered up to ₹1.5 lakh for up to 7 days from the accident.
- Designated hospitals are required to treat victims without delay or demanding any upfront payment.
- Non-designated hospitals may only offer initial stabilisation, as defined in the guidelines.
- The State Road Safety Council serves as the nodal agency for implementation at the state level.
- The Council will work with the National Health Authority (NHA) to onboard hospitals, monitor care, and ensure timely reimbursements.
- Additional hospitals may be designated by State Health Agencies, beyond those already listed under Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY.
- Hospitals must file payment claims via an online portal, attaching all required documentation.
- The State Health Agency will process claims and may approve, partially approve, or reject them, with reasons provided.
- A national steering committee, chaired by the MoRTH Secretary and NHA CEO, will oversee the scheme’s implementation and compliance.
| [UPSC 2023] Consider the following actions:
1. Detection of car crash/collision which results in the deployment of airbags almost instantaneously
2. Detection of accidental free fall of a laptop towards the ground which results in the immediate turning off of the hard drive.
3. Detection of the tilt of the smart phone which results in the rotation of display between portrait and landscape mode.
In how many of the above actions is the function of accelerometer required?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
The Art Deco style, first showcased at the Paris Exposition on April 29, 1925, took a decade to arrive in Madras. It spread to India via Bombay, where the country’s first Art Deco structure — the Syndicate Bank building — was completed in 1932.
About Art Deco Style of Architecture:
- Art Deco Style is a design style that emerged in the 1920s and 30s, characterized by sleek, geometric shapes, luxurious materials, and a focus on manufactured goods.
- It signified a break from older styles like Neo-classical, Indo-Saracenic, and Bombay Gothic.
- The style was embraced by Indian banks, insurance companies, cinemas, studios, and business houses to symbolize modernity and cultural identity.
- In Madras, Art Deco became visible in cinema theatres like Casino (1941), preview halls of Gemini, AVM, and Vijaya-Vauhini studios, commercial buildings like Dare House (1938), hotels such as Oceanic and Dasaprakash, and residential areas including T. Nagar, Mylapore, Alwarpet, and Adyar.
- Art Deco influenced furniture design, silverware, and even fonts in print.
- By the 1950s, it was gradually replaced by Modernist/Brutalist styles, aligned with Socialist ideology.
Contributions of Laxman Mahadeo Chitale:
- Chitale (1892–1960) was a prominent architect who introduced Art Deco to Madras.
- Recognized for his drawing skills by Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekwad III of Baroda.
- He trained under H.V. Lanchester, a British architect associated with New Delhi‘s early planning.
- He worked on the Umaid Bhavan Palace in Jodhpur, a grand Art Deco residence.
- After returning from England, Chitale settled in Madras and joined the PWD.
- In 1932, he started his independent practice, marking the beginning of Art Deco architecture in the city.
- His major works included the Oriental Insurance Building on Armenian Street, the National Insurance Building (1938) on China Bazaar Road, and the Andhra Insurance Building (1939).
- His architectural style often included corner entrances and street-facing facades, inspired by Sir Edwin Lutyens.
| [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following was the first fort constructed by the British in India?
Options: (a) Fort William (b) Fort St. George* (c) Fort St. David (d) Fort St. Angelo |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2016] Present an account of the Indus Water Treaty and examine its ecological, economic and [UPSC 2024] Terrorism has become a significant threat to global peace and security’. Evaluate the effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and its associated bodies in addressing and mitigating this threat at the international level.
Linkage: Terrorism as a global threat and asks about the effectiveness of an international institution (UNSC’s CTC) in addressing it. This directly relates to the article which discusses the lack of a collective fight against terror and highlights how actions within the UN Security Council (like China blocking proposals against Pakistan-based terrorists) demonstrate the challenges and fragmentation in international cooperation against terrorism. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Pahalgam terror attack on April 22 has once again revealed the lack of unity in the global fight against terrorism, as well as Pakistan’s tendency to use terrorism whenever there is a possibility of peace returning to Jammu and Kashmir. Although many countries have condemned the attack, they have also urged both India and Pakistan to show restraint. U.S. Secretary of State Marco Rubio asked both nations to find a peaceful solution that ensures long-term peace and stability in South Asia. U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance expressed hope that India’s reaction would not lead to a larger conflict in the region. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said that any issues between India and Pakistan should be resolved through political and diplomatic talks. Meanwhile, the EU’s foreign policy chief, Kaja Kallas, didn’t even describe the incident as a terror attack.
Today’s editorial talks about how the world is not united in fighting terrorism and highlights how Pakistan often uses terrorism as a tool. This topic is useful for GS Paper II (International Relations) and GS Paper III (Internal Security).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
In the past, there was a strong global consensus and zero tolerance towards terrorism. However, in the case of India, which continues to be a victim of state-sponsored terrorism, the international response often seems to follow a different set of standards.
What does the Pahalgam terror attack reveal about the global fight against terrorism?
- Fragmentation and Hypocrisy in the Global Anti-Terror Stand: The unified global stance post-9/11 has weakened; countries now view terrorism through selective lenses based on their strategic interests. Eg: While the Pahalgam attack was clearly a terrorist act targeting Hindu pilgrims, the EU failed to call it a “terror attack” and instead used vague diplomatic language, showcasing diplomatic double standards.
- “Your Terrorist vs My Terrorist” Mindset Prevails: Different regions prioritize different types of terrorism, undermining a collective global response. Eg: The U.S. focuses on REMVE (racially and ethnically motivated violent extremism), while Canada ignores pro-Khalistan threats against India, citing freedom of expression.
- Global Inaction Against State-Sponsored Terrorism: Despite clear evidence of Pakistan’s role in cross-border terrorism, major powers avoid taking concrete action, fearing geopolitical consequences. Eg: China has blocked UN sanctions against terrorists operating from Pakistani soil, and the West emphasizes “regional stability” over punishing the perpetrator.
Why are global powers urging restraint between India and Pakistan after the attack?
- Fear of Nuclear Escalation in South Asia: Global powers are wary of any confrontation between two nuclear-armed nations, especially in a volatile region. Eg: Despite India’s position as the victim, the U.S. Secretary of State Marco Rubio urged both India and Pakistan to maintain “long-term peace and regional stability”, placing equal responsibility on both sides.
- Geopolitical Fatigue Due to Multiple Ongoing Conflicts: With active wars in Ukraine, Gaza, and West Asia, there is a limited appetite among global powers for another escalation in Asia. Eg: U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance expressed hope that India’s response would not trigger a regional conflict, reflecting global fatigue and risk-aversion.
- Pakistan’s Manipulative Use of the ‘Nuclear Threat’ Narrative: Pakistan has long used the “nuclear war” bogey to deter international support for strong Indian countermeasures. Eg: Even as Western powers support Ukraine in a war against nuclear-armed Russia, they urge Indian restraint to avoid a similar escalation with Pakistan.
How has Pakistan’s role in terrorism affected its relations with India and the UN?
- Strained Bilateral Relations with India: Terror attacks traced back to Pakistan-based groups have derailed peace processes and led to diplomatic isolation. Eg: After the Pulwama attack (2019), India withdrew the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status from Pakistan and suspended bilateral talks.
- Global Censure and Blacklisting Threats by the UN and FATF: Pakistan has been repeatedly flagged by international watchdogs like the UN and FATF for harbouring terror networks. Eg: In 2018, the FATF grey-listed Pakistan due to insufficient action against terror financing, affecting its global financial credibility.
- Reduced Legitimacy in Global Forums: Its credibility at the UN is undermined by its ambivalence towards terror groups, weakening its case on Kashmir and other issues. Eg: India has consistently blocked Pakistan’s attempts to internationalize the Kashmir issue at the UN by highlighting its support for cross-border terrorism.
Why is there a double standard in addressing terror attacks on Hindus?
- Global Narrative Often Selective Based on Identity Politics: Attacks on Hindus are sometimes downplayed in international media and forums due to fears of appearing biased or anti-minority. Eg: The 2023 Pakistan Hindu temple attacks received minimal global coverage compared to similar attacks on other communities.
- Lack of Institutional Recognition for Hindu Persecution: Unlike other religious groups, Hindus often lack dedicated international forums or recognition as victims of targeted violence. Eg: The Kashmiri Hindu exodus in the 1990s remains largely absent from global human rights discussions, unlike similar ethnic cleansings.
- Geopolitical Considerations Overshadow Justice: Nations avoid condemning attacks on Hindus in countries like Pakistan or Bangladesh to maintain strategic ties, even at the cost of justice. Eg: Western powers rarely impose sanctions or raise strong objections to sectarian violence against Hindus in South Asia.
What actions should India take against state-sponsored terrorism from Pakistan? (Way forward)
- Strengthen Diplomatic Pressure through Global Alliances: India should leverage platforms like the UN, G20, and Quad to diplomatically isolate Pakistan and expose its terror links. Eg: After the Uri and Pulwama attacks, India launched diplomatic campaigns leading to Pakistan’s continued presence on the FATF grey list.
- Enhance Intelligence and Surgical Response Capabilities: India must invest in real-time intelligence and conduct targeted counter-terror operations across the Line of Control when credible evidence exists. Eg: The 2016 Surgical Strikes and 2019 Balakot air strikes demonstrated India’s shift to proactive defense strategies.
- Cut Economic and Water Leverage: India can revisit the Indus Waters Treaty and limit trade relations to exert pressure without crossing into full-scale conflict. Eg: Post-Pulwama, India reviewed the Indus treaty and imposed 100% customs duty on Pakistani imports.
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Why in the News?
India now aims to increase ethanol blending in petrol to 30% to reduce the use of fossil fuels, after reaching its earlier target of 20% for 2025 ahead of time.
What factors have contributed to the decline in sugarcane production in India since 2022?
- Red-Rot Disease: A major fungal infection that affects the stalk and reduces crop health and yield. Eg. In Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra, outbreaks of red-rot significantly reduced sugarcane productivity post-2022.
- Deficient Rainfall: Inadequate monsoon rains have led to water stress in sugarcane-growing regions. Eg. In Maharashtra and Karnataka, below-normal rainfall in 2023 led to poor crop growth and lower yields.
- Flowering Issues: Disruption in the natural flowering cycle affects cane maturity and sugar content. Eg. In southern India, unseasonal weather affected flowering patterns, resulting in underdeveloped canes.
- Soil Depletion (Soil Fatigue): Continuous sugarcane monocropping depletes soil nutrients, lowering productivity. Eg. In western Uttar Pradesh, repeated sugarcane cultivation without crop rotation has led to reduced soil fertility.
- Crop Diversion: Farmers are shifting to other crops due to uncertain returns and rising input costs. Eg. In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, farmers moved to pulses and cotton, reducing the area under sugarcane.
Why has the Indian government approved a hike in the Fair Remunerative Price for sugarcane?
- Support for Farmer Income: The hike in FRP is intended to ensure that farmers receive a fair price for their produce, thus supporting their income. Eg: The increased FRP of ₹355 per quintal (up from ₹340) ensures that farmers are adequately compensated, especially as input costs have risen. This makes sugarcane cultivation more attractive to farmers.
- Addressing Rising Input Costs: The costs of farming inputs, such as fertilizers, labor, and irrigation, have increased, and the FRP hike helps mitigate these expenses for farmers.
Eg: With the rise in fertilizer prices, the government’s decision to raise the FRP ensures that farmers can continue cultivating sugarcane without facing financial distress due to high input costs.
- Incentivizing Sugarcane Production: A higher FRP encourages farmers to cultivate more sugarcane, addressing concerns over declining sugarcane production in India.
Eg: In regions like Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, where production has been affected due to reduced farmer interest, the FRP increase motivates farmers to maintain or increase their sugarcane acreage.
- Ensuring Steady Sugar Supply: Maintaining sugarcane production through higher FRP ensures a stable sugar supply for the domestic market. Eg: With India being one of the world’s largest sugar producers, ensuring adequate sugarcane production is vital to prevent sugar shortages and price hikes, as seen in previous years.
- Timely Payments to Farmers: The FRP hike ensures that sugar mills can afford to make timely payments to farmers, thus reducing arrears. Eg: In the past, many farmers faced delayed payments from mills. The higher FRP is expected to make it financially feasible for mills to pay farmers on time.
Which alternatives is the government considering to offset the sugarcane shortfall for ethanol?
- B-Heavy Molasses: The government has lifted restrictions on B-heavy molasses for ethanol production, increasing supply without extra sugarcane cultivation. Eg: 750,000 metric tons of B-heavy molasses are now available for ethanol production.
- Cane Juice and Syrup: Sugar mills can now use cane juice and syrup for ethanol, boosting production capacity. Eg: Policy change allows sugar mills to divert more resources into ethanol production from sugarcane juice.
- Grain-Based Ethanol: The government is encouraging the use of grains like maize and rice for ethanol, diversifying feedstocks. Eg: India has turned to maize for ethanol production, though it has led to increased corn imports.
- Food vs. Fuel Balance: The government has adjusted policies to prioritize sugar production when needed. Eg: Restrictions were imposed on ethanol production in December 2023 to ensure sufficient sugar supply.
- Molasses-Based Ethanol Procurement Price: The government has increased the procurement price for molasses-based ethanol to incentivize production. Eg: The procurement price was raised by 3% to ₹58 per liter to boost ethanol supply.
Way forward:
- Promote Crop Diversification and Sustainable Practices: Encourage farmers to adopt crop rotation and diversified farming practices, alongside promoting resilient sugarcane varieties, to reduce dependency on sugarcane monocropping and mitigate soil depletion.
- Strengthen Ethanol Supply Chain and Support Alternative Feedstocks: Enhance infrastructure for processing alternative feedstocks like maize and rice for ethanol production, while incentivizing the use of B-heavy molasses and cane juice to ensure a steady supply of ethanol without further straining sugarcane resources.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linkage: The rise in sugar price, partly due to diversion for ethanol blending, is “pinching the pockets of consumers”. This question directly addresses the causes of high food inflation, which is a significant impact of the “food vs fuel” dynamic where increased demand for crops for fuel can drive up food prices.
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Why in the News?
The recent remarks made by the Vice-President of India about the role of judges have raised serious concerns and need to be carefully examined.
What concerns arise from the Vice-President’s comments on judges’ roles in India?
- Undermines Judicial Authority: Calling judges a “super parliament” questions the legitimacy of judicial review — a core function to uphold the Constitution. Eg: Criticism of court directions to Governors on bill assent.
- Erosion of Constitutional Balance: His comments disrupt the delicate balance among the legislature, executive, and judiciary by implying judicial overreach without constitutional basis. Eg: In cases like Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme Court protected constitutional principles through its basic structure doctrine—critical for maintaining checks and balances.
- Erodes Public Trust: Statements from high offices may weaken public faith in judicial impartiality and independence. Eg: Comments implying judges are unaccountable raise doubts on rule of law.
Why is the term “super parliament” problematic in India’s parliamentary system?
- Contradicts the Principle of Popular Sovereignty: Parliament derives its authority from the people; no organ, including the judiciary, can override it. Calling the judiciary a “super parliament” distorts this hierarchy. Eg: In Rojer Mathew v. South Indian Bank Ltd. (2019), the Supreme Court clarified that judicial review strengthens—not replaces—parliamentary supremacy.
- Misrepresents the Role of Judicial Review: Judicial review is a constitutional mechanism to check the validity of laws—not an attempt to legislate. Calling it a “super parliament” falsely equates judicial scrutiny with lawmaking. Eg: In Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980), the Court struck down amendments violating the Constitution’s basic structure without encroaching on the legislative domain.
- Undermines Separation of Powers: The term falsely suggests that the judiciary exceeds its mandate, eroding the balance between the three organs of government enshrined in the Constitution. Eg: The L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India (1997) judgment upheld judicial review as part of the basic structure, emphasizing that courts act within their defined constitutional limits.
How does the Constitution ensure judicial independence and separation of powers?
- Fixed Tenure and Security of Judges: Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts enjoy security of tenure and can only be removed through a rigorous impeachment process, ensuring they are free from executive or legislative pressure. Eg: The impeachment process under Article 124(4) was invoked in the case of Justice V. Ramaswami (1993), though it did not lead to removal, demonstrating the difficulty of arbitrary dismissal.
- Financial Independence of the Judiciary: The salaries, allowances, and pensions of judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and are not subject to parliamentary vote, protecting them from financial manipulation. Eg: This provision, under Article 112 and Article 125, ensures that the executive cannot curtail judicial functioning by reducing funds.
- Constitutional Authority of Judicial Review: The Constitution explicitly empowers courts to review laws and executive actions for constitutional validity, preserving checks and balances between organs of government. Eg: In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme Court asserted its authority to strike down amendments violating the Constitution’s basic structure.
What justifies the judiciary setting deadlines for the President to clear Bills in line with popular sovereignty?
- Fixed Tenure and Security of Judges: Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts enjoy security of tenure and can only be removed through a rigorous impeachment process, ensuring they are free from executive or legislative pressure. Eg: The impeachment process under Article 124(4) was invoked in the case of Justice V. Ramaswami (1993), though it did not lead to removal, demonstrating the difficulty of arbitrary dismissal.
- Financial Independence of the Judiciary
The salaries, allowances, and pensions of judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and are not subject to parliamentary vote, protecting them from financial manipulation. Eg: This provision, under Article 112 and Article 125, ensures that the executive cannot curtail judicial functioning by reducing funds.
Why is the claim that judges are above the law considered irrational?
- Judges are bound by the Constitution and Rule of Law: Judges operate strictly within the constitutional framework and are accountable to it. Any violation of constitutional provisions by a judge amounts to “proved misbehaviour” and can lead to removal. Eg: Article 124(4) allows Parliament to impeach a Supreme Court judge for proven misbehaviour or incapacity, showing they are not immune from the law.
- Parliament can override judicial decisions by making new laws: If the judiciary overreaches or issues controversial verdicts, Parliament can counter it through legislative action, reinforcing democratic accountability. Eg: After the Shah Bano case (1985), Parliament passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, effectively reversing the Court’s judgment.
Way forward:
- Respect Constitutional Boundaries: All constitutional authorities should uphold the principle of separation of powers and avoid statements that may undermine public trust in institutions.
- Promote Constructive Dialogue: Encourage open, respectful discussions between the judiciary and executive to resolve differences while maintaining democratic values.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] Judicial Legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers as envisaged in the Indian Constitution. In this context justify the filing of large number of public interest petitions praying for issuing guidelines to executive authorities.
Linkage: Judicial action (issuing guidelines to the executive) to the separation of powers doctrine. It discusses judicial legislation, which is when courts effectively create law, blurring the lines between the judiciary and legislature. This raises concerns about accountability – to whom is the judiciary accountable when it is perceived to be legislating?
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Why in the News?
India and the United Kingdom signed a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), ending nearly 3 years of negotiations, with an aim to boost trade and investment between the two nations.
What is Free Trade Agreement (FTA)?
- An FTA is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate customs tariffs and non-tariff barriers on trade between them.
- Objective: To promote trade by making it easier and more cost-effective for businesses to import and export goods and services.
- FTAs can cover goods, services, investment, and intellectual property rights.
- By reducing trade barriers, FTAs also benefit consumers by offering a wider range of products at lower prices.
- FTAs play a key role in boosting economic growth and job creation by facilitating trade between countries.
- India’s FTAs:
- India has signed FTAs with 16 countries or regional blocs as of May 2025.
- These FTAs cover major partners such as Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, South Korea, Japan, Australia, UAE, Mauritius, ASEAN (10 countries), and EFTA (4 countries).
Key terms of the UK-India FTA:
- Trade Growth: Expected to boost bilateral trade by £25.5 billion annually by 2040.
- Whisky and Gin Tariffs: Tariffs reduced from 150% to 75%, eventually to 40% over 10 years.
- Automobile Tariffs: India to reduce automotive tariffs from over 100% to 10%.
- Other Goods: Tariffs reduced on cosmetics, aerospace, medical devices, chocolate, and more.
- Services and Work Permits: Increased quotas for Indian workers in IT and healthcare, with 100 new visas annually for professionals.
- Carbon Tax: Dispute over UK’s proposed carbon tax on metal imports.
- Supply Chain Resilience: FTA aims to reduce reliance on China and improve supply chain security.
| [UPSC 2017] The term ‘Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA)’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of negotiations held between India and:
Options: (a) European Union* (b) Gulf Cooperation Council (c) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (d) Shanghai Cooperation Organization. |
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Why in the News?
The Union Home Ministry directed all states and Union Territories to conduct a Civil Defence Mock Drill, aimed at assessing and enhancing the readiness of India’s civil defence mechanisms.
About Civil Defence under the Civil Defence Act, 1968
- The Civil Defence Act, 1968 was enacted to ensure measures for civil defence to protect citizens, properties, and establishments from hostile attacks or natural disasters.
- It aims to prepare the population to respond to emergencies such as military attacks, terrorist activities, and natural calamities.
- Civil Defence Corps is formed at both national and state levels. Volunteers from various sectors are enlisted and trained.
- The corps operates under the Central Government’s rules for civil defence.
- Key functions include- Evacuation of civilians; Protection from danger and destruction; Salvage of property; Managing hazardous materials.
- The Central Government has the authority to:
- Make rules for civil defence across India.
- Enforce evacuation procedures, control over dangerous substances, and manage disaster relief.
- Penalties for non-compliance with the civil defence regulations.
Recent Context: Civil Defence Mock Drill on 7th May
- This exercise assesses and enhances the readiness of India’s civil defence systems to respond promptly during emergencies.
- The drills will occur across nearly 300 civil defence districts, including sensitive locations like Mumbai, Uran (Jawaharlal Nehru Port), and Tarapur (nuclear power plant).
- The mock drill aims to improve response time for rescue and relief operations, focusing on critical situations in the first few minutes of an emergency.
| [UPSC 2010] With reference to the National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy, 2007, consider the following statements:
1. This policy is applicable only to the persons affected by the acquisition of land for projects and not to the involuntary displacement due to any other reason.
2. This policy has been formulated by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
Recent research has uncovered evidence of ancient wildfires (palaeofires) in the Godavari Basin, shedding light on Earth’s geological and climatic history from over 250 million years ago.
What are Palaeofires?
- Palaeofires refer to ancient wildfires that occurred in the Earth’s past, influencing the vegetation, climate, and even the formation of coal.
- These fires, spanning from the Late Silurian (419.2 to 443.8 million years ago) to the Quaternary (2.58 million years ago), left their mark across various landscapes.
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Ancient Palaeofires in the Godavari Basin:
- Palaeofires, traced back to the Permian period, provide evidence of how fires influenced prehistoric landscapes.
- Advanced techniques like Raman Spectroscopy and FTIR Spectroscopy were used to differentiate between in situ (on-site) and ex situ (transported) charcoal.
- The research also highlighted how sea level changes impacted charcoal deposition, with well-preserved fire signatures during regressive phases and more oxidized charcoal during transgressive phases.
- These findings contribute to understanding carbon storage in the Earth’s crust and provide insights into past climate dynamics and fire behavior.
Role of Palaeofires in Earth’s Past:
- Palaeofires were crucial in shaping Earth’s climate, vegetation, and contributing to coal formation across various geological periods.
- During the Permian period, palaeofires were widespread in Gondwana, affecting plant life and coal deposits.
- Fossil charcoal found in coal-bearing formations like the Raniganj Coalfield suggested a connection between seasonal droughts and wildfires.
- These wildfires influenced vegetation patterns and led to the accumulation of carbon-rich deposits.
- High atmospheric oxygen levels likely intensified these wildfires, significantly affecting both climate and ecosystem changes.
- Understanding palaeofires helps in grasping long-term carbon sequestration processes.
| [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is:
Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years* (d) 670 million years |
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