💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (August Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

GS Paper: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

  • [pib] Schemes Implemented in Science and Technology

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Science and Technology, through its three key departments — Department of Science and Technology (DST), Department of Biotechnology (DBT), and Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) — is implementing various schemes to bolster the Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) ecosystem across India.

    Schemes Implemented Under the Department of Science and Technology (DST)

    Scheme   Objective Key Components
    Science and Technology (S&T) Institutional and Human Capacity Building (2015) Enhance human resource development and institutional capacity in science and technology. – Fellowships at various levels (undergraduate, postgraduate, doctoral, post-doctoral).
    – Establishment of sophisticated R&D facilities.
    – Capacity building for faculty.
    Research and Development (R&D) (2009) Support research in fundamental, applied, and translational sciences. – Collaborative research with universities, government, and private sectors.
    – International research cooperation.
    – Focus on diverse sectors like health, energy, and IT.
    Innovation, Technology Development, and Deployment (2016) Foster innovation and facilitate the development of new technologies for national development. – Technology incubation centers.
    – Technology transfer and commercialization.
    – Support for startups and entrepreneurs.
    National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) (2017) Promote interdisciplinary research in Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) that integrate computational algorithms with physical processes. – Development of CPS technologies (e.g., IoT, smart cities, advanced manufacturing).
    – Setting up innovation centers and testbeds for CPS.
    National Quantum Mission (NQM) (2023) Advance quantum technologies for solving national challenges in energy, communications, and security. – Research in quantum computing, quantum communications, and quantum sensing.
    – Establishment of quantum technology hubs and research centers.

     

    Schemes Implemented Under the Department of Biotechnology (DBT)

    Scheme Objective Key Components
    Biotechnology Research Innovation and Entrepreneurship Development (Bio-RIDE) (2017) Foster innovation in biotechnology through research, industrial development, and entrepreneurship. – Biotechnology R&D: Funding for research projects.
    – Industrial & Entrepreneurship Development (I&ED): Support for biotech startups and industrial innovations.
    – Biomanufacturing and Biofoundry: Development of manufacturing and biotechnological production systems.

  • [pib] India’s first modern Compressed Biogas (CBG) Plant

    Why in the News?

    PM Modi inaugurated the 100 TPD cattle dung-based Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG) plant in Gwalior.

    About the CBG Plant 

    • The plant is located in Laltipara, Gwalior, within the largest cowshed in the region, Adarsh Gaushala, which houses over 10,000 cattle.
      • It spans over 5 acres.
      • It is India’s first self-sufficient gaushala with a modern CBG plant, where cow dung and organic waste (such as vegetable and fruit waste from mandis and households) are processed into valuable biogas.
    • The project, developed at a cost of ₹31 crores, is a collaboration between Gwalior Municipal Corporation and the Indian Oil Corporation.

    Working features:

    • Bio CNG: The plant produces 2 tons of compressed Bio CNG daily from 100 tons of cattle dung, providing a cleaner, eco-friendly alternative to traditional fossil fuels.
    • Organic Manure: The plant also generates 10-15 tons of dry bio-manure daily, which is a valuable by-product for organic farming.
    • Windrow composting: The plant incorporates windrow composting, located adjacent to the main facility, which enhances organic waste processing.

     

    What is Compressed Biogas (CBG)?

    Details
    About
    • CBG is a renewable natural gas produced from the biochemical conversion of organic waste into methane.
    • It is chemically similar to CNG (compressed natural gas) and can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels in transportation, cooking, and power generation.
    Process of Making CBG
    1. Collection of Organic Waste: Organic waste such as agricultural residue, animal dung, food waste, and municipal solid waste is collected from farms, industries, and households.
    2. Anaerobic Digestion: Waste is placed in an airtight chamber, where microorganisms break it down without oxygen, producing biogas (methane, carbon dioxide, trace gases).
    3. Purification: The raw biogas undergoes purification through methods like pressure swing adsorption, water scrubbing, or membrane separation to remove impurities like CO₂, H₂S, and water, leaving pure methane.
    4. Compression: The purified methane is compressed to 200-250 bar pressure to form CBG, reducing volume for storage and transportation.
    5. Storage and Distribution: It is stored in high-pressure cylinders or tanks and transported to fuel stations or industries for various applications.
    Significance of CBG
    • Reduces fossil fuel dependence.
    • Mitigates landfill methane emissions.
    • CBG can replace CNG, reducing pollution.
    • Utilizes local organic waste.
    • Creates jobs, promotes organic farming, and provides eco-friendly fertilizers.

  • Democratising AI needs a radically different approach

    Why in the News?

    Policymakers globally are addressing Big Tech’s dominance in AI by investing in sovereign cloud infrastructure, open data platforms, and supporting start-ups, yet these measures may inadvertently reinforce Big Tech’s control.

    How can we ensure that AI is implemented in a way that upholds democratic values?

    • It promotes Open Data Initiatives: While open data can enhance AI systems, it must be safeguarded against commercial capture by larger entities. Initiatives should focus on making data accessible and usable for smaller players without allowing Big Tech to monopolize it.
    • It invests in Public Compute Infrastructure: Establishing public computing resources can provide alternatives to private cloud services dominated by Big Tech. However, these resources must be competitive in terms of cost and functionality to be effective.
    • It fosters Smaller AI Models: Shifting focus from large-scale deep learning models to smaller, theory-driven AI models can democratize development. This approach emphasizes domain expertise and lived experiences over sheer data volume, which aligns better with democratic values.

    What role should public participation play?

    • Engagement in Policy Development: Involving diverse stakeholders, including community representatives and industry experts, can help create policies that reflect a broader range of interests and concerns regarding AI deployment.
    • Transparency and Accountability: Mechanisms should be established to ensure transparency in AI decision-making processes. Public oversight can help hold organizations accountable for their AI practices, particularly regarding data usage and algorithmic biases.
    • Community-Centric AI Solutions: Encouraging local communities to participate in the design and implementation of AI solutions can lead to more equitable outcomes. This involvement ensures that AI applications address specific community needs rather than serving corporate interests alone.

    What are the risks associated with technocratic governance?

    • Concentration of Power: The dominance of Big Tech can lead to a concentration of power where a few entities dictate the terms of AI development and deployment. This scenario risks sidelining smaller players and reducing diversity in innovation.
    • Surveillance and Privacy Concerns: The use of AI for surveillance by powerful corporations can threaten individual privacy rights. Policymakers must carefully consider the implications of deploying AI technologies that could exacerbate existing inequalities or infringe on civil liberties.
    • Erosion of Public Trust: If the public perceives that AI governance is primarily driven by technocratic elites without adequate input from citizens, trust in these systems may erode. This distrust can hinder the effective implementation of AI technologies that could otherwise benefit society.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish Inclusive AI Governance: Create multi-stakeholder frameworks involving governments, communities, and smaller players to ensure transparency, accountability, and equitable access to AI resources, safeguarding against monopolistic practices.
    • Prioritize Ethical, Small-Scale AI Development: Shift focus from large-scale deep learning models to theory-driven, domain-specific AI solutions that respect privacy, foster community involvement, and address localized needs, promoting democratic values in AI deployment.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) hasinitiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • Should packaged food content be labelled?

    Why in the News?

    A report by the Access to Nutrition Initiative (ATNi), a global non-profit, reveals that food and beverage companies generally sell less healthy products in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) than in high-income countries (HICs).

    What does the report published by the Access to Nutrition Initiative state? 

    • Lower Health Ratings in LMICs: The report assessed 52,414 products from 30 of the world’s largest food and beverage manufacturers. It found that products sold in LMICs had an average Health Star Rating (HSR) of 1.8, whereas those in HICs averaged 2.3. This indicates that the portfolios of these companies are less healthy in poorer markets.
    • Healthier Product Sales: Only 30% of the assessed companies have a strategy to price their healthier products affordably for lower-income consumers. This lack of accessibility contributes to dietary issues in these regions.
    • Micronutrient Data Availability: The report highlighted that micronutrient data were available for a smaller proportion of products in LMICs compared to HICs, complicating efforts to address nutritional deficiencies.
    • Call for Action: The ATNi challenges companies to derive at least 50% of their sales from healthier products by 2030, a target that only a small fraction currently meets.

    How does a Health Star rating system work? 

      • The Health Star Rating (HSR) system is a front-of-pack labeling initiative that rates food products on a scale from 0.5 to 5 stars based on their nutritional profile.
    • The rating is calculated by assessing:
      • Risk Nutrients: Total energy, saturated fat, sugars, and sodium.
      • Positive Nutrients: Protein, fiber, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and legumes.
    • A score above 3.5 stars is considered healthier, while lower scores indicate less healthy options. This system allows consumers to easily compare similar products and make informed dietary choices.

    Why have non-communicable diseases become so common in India? 

    Non-communicable diseases have become increasingly prevalent in India due to several factors:

    • Dietary Shifts: There has been a significant increase in the consumption of highly processed foods that are high in sugars and fats, contributing to obesity and diabetes.
      • According to the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), unhealthy diets account for over 56% of the total disease burden in India.
    • Affordability Issues: More than 50% of Indians cannot afford a healthy diet, exacerbating nutritional deficiencies alongside rising obesity rates.
    • Lifestyle Changes: Reduced physical activity and urbanization have also played roles in this epidemic, leading to a dual burden of undernutrition and obesity.

    Can front-of-pack labelling help?

    Front-of-pack labeling could significantly influence consumer behavior and public health outcomes:

    • Effectiveness of Warning Labels: Studies from countries like Chile and Mexico show that mandatory warning labels on sugary beverages have led to decreased consumption. This suggests that clear labeling can help consumers make healthier choices.
    • Need for Mandatory Policies: Activists argue that voluntary measures taken by companies have been insufficient. They advocate for mandatory regulations on front-of-pack labeling to effectively communicate nutritional information related to high sugar, fat, and sodium content.

    Conclusion: The Access to Nutrition Initiative report emphasizes the urgent need for healthier food portfolios in LMICs (Low- and Middle-Income Countries), equitable pricing, and front-of-pack labeling to combat non-communicable diseases. These steps align with SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), promoting healthier lives globally.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples. (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • What is High-Altitude Sickness?

    Why in the News?

    The tragic death of a trekker scaling Garur Peak in Uttarakhand, underscores the dangers of high-altitude sickness in the Himalayas.

    What is High-Altitude Sickness?

    • Causes: High-altitude sickness, or Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS), occurs when the body struggles to acclimatise to elevations above 8,000 feet (2,400 metres) due to reduced oxygen levels.
    • Symptoms: Early signs include headache, nausea, fatigue, and shortness of breath. If untreated, it may escalate to:
      • High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Fluid in the lungs, causing breathing difficulties.
      • High-Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE): Fluid in the brain, leading to confusion, hallucinations, and coma.

    Prevention and Treatment

    • To prevent AMS, experts recommend a slow ascent with rest days every 3-4 days above 3,000 meters and avoiding sleeping elevation increases of more than 500 meters per day.
    • Medications:
      • Acetazolamide: Aids acclimatisation.
      • Dexamethasone: Reduces severe inflammation.
      • Nifedipine: Prevents HAPE in high-risk individuals.
        Note: Medications are not foolproof and are to be taken under medical guidance.

  • Growing epidemic

    Why in the News?

    Global diabetes cases surged from 200 million in 1990 to over 800 million in 2022, with adult prevalence doubling from 7% to 14%, according to The Lancet report.

    What are the WHO’s targets for diabetes diagnosis and management by 2030?

    • The World Health Organization (WHO) aims for 80% of people with diabetes to be diagnosed.
    • The target is for 80% of diagnosed individuals to achieve good glycemic control, which is crucial for preventing complications associated with diabetes.

    What is the current state of diabetes prevalence in India?

    • As of 2022, India has the highest number of people with diabetes globally, totalling 212 million, significantly up from around 200 million in 1990.
    • The prevalence of diabetes among adults in India rose from 7% in 1990 to 14% in 2022.
    • India also leads in the number of untreated diabetes cases, with 133 million individuals over the age of 30 remaining undiagnosed, compared to 78 million in China.
    • The increase is partly attributed to improved data collection methods that include individuals with elevated fasting plasma glucose and glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), capturing a broader population affected by diabetes.

    What strategies can India implement to achieve these targets?

    • Targeted Screening and Lifestyle Interventions: India can adopt Finland’s approach of identifying high-risk individuals through targeted screening and offering lifestyle interventions, including dietary changes and exercise, to prevent diabetes.
    • Enhance Public Awareness Campaigns: Community-based implementation and awareness programs align with SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by promoting healthy lifestyles, preventing diabetes, and ensuring equitable access to healthcare for all, especially vulnerable populations.
    • Improve Access to Healthcare Services: Ensure that diagnostic facilities for blood glucose testing are widely available and affordable. Strengthen primary healthcare services to facilitate easier access to diabetes care and management.

    Steps taken by the government:

    • National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Stroke (NPCDCS): Launched to promote awareness, early diagnosis, and management of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) including diabetes. This program aims to reduce risk factors through lifestyle modifications and improve access to healthcare services.
    • Collaboration with WHO and Other Organizations: India collaborates with the World Health Organization (WHO) and other international bodies to align its diabetes management strategies with global best practices and targets, including those set for 2030.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Preventive Healthcare: Focus on early detection through widespread screening, robust public awareness campaigns, and targeted interventions for high-risk groups, emphasizing healthy lifestyle promotion.
    • Enhance Integrated Care Systems: Scale up access to affordable diabetes care, strengthen primary healthcare services, and integrate technology for monitoring and management to achieve WHO’s glycemic control targets by 2030.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q  Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments. (UPSC IAS/2017)

  • [pib] Centenary of Bose-Einstein Statistics

    Why in the News?

    The Union Ministry of Science and Technology has inaugurated the centenary celebrations of Bose-Einstein Statistics at the S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences.

    Bose-Einstein Statistics

    • Bose-Einstein statistics describe how certain particles called bosons (like photons and helium-4 atoms) behave, especially at low temperatures.
    • This concept was developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein.
    • It explains the behavior of bosons, which are particles that can exist in the same state as others.
    • Unlike other particles, bosons can “share” a quantum state, meaning multiple bosons can exist in the same place with the same energy.
    • It is used to understand particles that don’t follow the Pauli Exclusion Principle (which states that two fermions, like electrons, cannot occupy the same state).

    Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

    • A BEC is a special state of matter formed when bosons are cooled down to almost absolute zero (-273°C). In this state, the particles behave as one single quantum entity.
    • Bosons, when cooled to near absolute zero, lose their individual properties and combine to form a single quantum state.
    • It was achieved in 1995 by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman using rubidium atoms.
    • This discovery earned them the Nobel Prize in Physics.
    • BECs exhibit unique quantum behaviors like zero viscosity (flow without friction) and act as a “super atom” that is extremely sensitive to any outside influence.

    Significance of Bose-Einstein Statistics

    • Bose-Einstein statistics are essential for understanding quantum mechanics, particularly the behavior of particles in quantum states.
    • These statistics led to the discovery of Bose-Einstein Condensates, which have unique properties not seen in normal states of matter.
    • BECs are useful in atomic clocks, superconductors, and quantum computing due to their sensitivity and unique quantum properties.
    • Bose’s work was crucial in explaining light’s particle nature (photons), which helped develop the concept of wave-particle duality in quantum theory.
    • Bose-Einstein statistics paved the way for studying low-temperature physics, allowing scientists to observe quantum effects in larger systems.
    • These statistics and the discovery of BECs continue to inspire new fields of research, including quantum fluids and quantum phase transitions.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionised the field of Physics.

  • New NASA-ISRO Satellite ‘NISAR’ to revolutionise Earth monitoring

    Why in the News?

    • The NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar) satellite is aimed at advancing our understanding of Earth’s natural processes and environmental changes.
      • Set to be launched into Low Earth Orbit (LEO), NISAR will act as a comprehensive Earth observation observatory.

    About NISAR Satellite:

    Details
    Collaboration • Joint mission between NASA (United States) and ISRO (India).
    Purpose • Designed to monitor Earth’s natural processes and environmental changes, contributing to disaster preparedness, climate research, and sustainable management.
    Launch Date • Planned for early 2025.
    Launch Location • Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    Launch Vehicle • ISRO’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II).
    Orbit • Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
    Dual-Band Radar System • L-band radar (provided by NASA): Penetrates dense vegetation and tracks ground motion.
    • S-band radar (provided by ISRO): Enhances precision for surface monitoring.
    Day and Night Functionality • Operates 24/7, unaffected by weather conditions.
    Large Antenna • Diameter: 12 meters.
    • Structure: 39-foot reflector made from gold-plated wire mesh to focus radar signals effectively.
    Features • Scans Earth’s entire surface every 12 days.

    • Measures surface changes with accuracy down to fractions of an inch.

    • Can penetrate vegetation and soil layers, providing 3D reconstructions of subsurface structures.
    Areas of Study • Ecosystems and Environmental Changes (forest biomass, deforestation, wetlands, agricultural lands, glaciers, and ice sheets).
    • Natural Disasters (seismic shifts, volcanic bulging, landslides, and tsunamis).
    Benefits and Applications • Disaster Preparedness: Early warning data for natural disasters.
    • Infrastructure Monitoring: Tracks structural changes in critical infrastructure.
    • Environmental and Climate Research: Studies carbon storage, vegetation dynamics, and climate change impacts.
    Unique Advantages • Largest collaboration between NASA and ISRO.
    • Successfully tested in thermal vacuum conditions in Bengaluru in 2023.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] The term ‘IndARC’ sometimes seen in the news, is the name of?

    (a) An indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence.

    (b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim.

    (c) A scientific establishment set up by India in Antarctic region.

    (d) India’s underwater observatory to scientifically study the Arctic region.

  • LignoSat: the First Wooden Satellite launched into space

    Lignosat: the First Wooden Satellite launched into space

    Why in the News?

    The world’s first wood-panelled satellite, LignoSat, was recently launched to test the use of timber as a renewable material for future space missions.

    About LignoSat Satellite:

    Details
    Purpose To test the potential of wood as a renewable building material in space applications.
    Developed By Kyoto University and Sumitomo Forestry of Japan.
    Launch Details Launched on November 5 aboard a SpaceX Dragon cargo capsule.
    Mission Duration Spend a month at the International Space Station (ISS) before being deployed into Earth’s orbit for six months to test its performance.
    Size and Weight Measures 4 inches (10 cm) per side and weighs 900 grams.
    Material Built with magnolia wood panels, using a traditional Japanese technique that avoids screws and glue.
    Construction Combines wood-panel casings with aluminium structures and standard electronic components.
    Durability Testing Designed to withstand extreme temperature fluctuations in space, ranging from -100 to 100 degrees Celsius every 45 minutes.

    LignoSat as a Renewable Solution for Space Construction

    • Reduced Environmental Impact: Unlike conventional aluminium-based satellites, LignoSat reduces pollutants like aluminium oxides that damage the ozone layer upon re-entry.
    • Sustainable Material: Wood is a renewable, lightweight, and corrosion-resistant material in space, as there is no water or oxygen to accelerate degradation.
    • Long-Term Vision: The satellite could pave the way for sustainable space construction, with future plans to use wood in building structures on the Moon and Mars.
    • Mitigating Orbital Congestion: As satellite constellations grow, sustainable materials like wood could help reduce space debris and pollution in Earth’s orbit.

    PYQ:

    [2016] With reference to ‘AstroSat’, the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.

    2. AstroSat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • APOBEC (Apolipoprotein B mRNA Editing Catalytic Polypeptide)

    Why in the News?

    Since smallpox was eradicated in 1980, research on mpox has highlighted how the virus mutates, particularly through the APOBEC family of immune system proteins.

    About APOBEC

    • APOBEC (Apolipoprotein B mRNA Editing Enzyme, Catalytic Polypeptide-Like) is a family of proteins involved in regulating the genetic material of viruses and cells.
    • They are part of the human immune system and play a crucial role in protecting against viral infections by editing RNA and DNA.
    • APOBEC consists of several enzymes, with APOBEC1, APOBEC3 family members being the most well-known.
    • There are 11 identified members of the APOBEC family, primarily named APOBEC1, APOBEC2, and APOBEC3, with APOBEC3 being the most studied due to its antiviral properties.
    • It has a Zinc Finger Domain, which is essential for their enzymatic activity and ability to bind to DNA or RNA.
    • APOBEC proteins are found in various tissues and cells, but they are notably present in the immune cells such as T-cells, B-cells, and macrophages.
    • Role in Immune Defense:
      • APOBEC proteins contribute to the innate immune response by editing viral genomes, preventing the replication of viruses, and reducing the ability of viruses to establish infections.
      • They are known to be cytosine deaminases, which means they modify cytosine bases in nucleic acids to uracil, leading to mutations that can prevent successful viral replication.
      • APOBEC proteins target the genomes of several viruses, including retroviruses (like HIV), hepatitis B virus, and poxviruses (such as mpox and smallpox).

    Functions of APOBEC Proteins:

    • DNA Editing: APOBEC proteins can deaminate cytosine bases in single-stranded DNA, converting them into uracil, which can lead to mutations.
      • This introduces errors in the viral genome and inhibits replication.
    • RNA Editing: Some APOBEC proteins, like APOBEC1, are involved in editing mRNA. In the case of APOBEC1, it helps edit the mRNA of apolipoprotein B, which is crucial for lipid metabolism.
    • Antiviral Activity: APOBEC3 proteins, particularly APOBEC3G, inhibit the replication of HIV and other retroviruses by editing viral DNA during reverse transcription.
      • They also reduce the replication of poxviruses (such as mpox), making them crucial in controlling infections caused by these viruses.
    • Cytosine Deamination in Viral RNA: APOBEC proteins induce mutations in viral RNA, reducing the virus’s ability to efficiently replicate and spread. This helps prevent viral evolution and adaptation.
    • Inhibition of Viral Resistance: By causing mutations in viral genomes, APOBEC proteins prevent viruses from easily developing resistance to the immune system’s defenses.
    • Interaction with Other Immune Mechanisms: APOBEC proteins work in concert with other immune mechanisms, like interferons, to enhance antiviral responses and limit infections.

    PYQ:

    [2016]  In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:

    (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing

    (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

    (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression

    (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells