GS Paper: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.
The Union Cabinet approved the construction of a third launchpad at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. In 2024, PM laid the foundation stone for ISRO’s second rocket launchport at Kulasekarapattinam in Tamil Nadu’s Thoothukudi district. (The first one being the Dr Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.)
Who was Satish Dhawan?
Born in Srinagar, Satish Dhawan was a prominent Indian rocket scientist and is hailed as the ‘Father of Experimental Fluid Dynamics Research’ in India.
Succeeded Vikram Sarabhai as ISRO Chairman in 1972.
Oversaw a period of extraordinary growth in India’s space program, including the development of:
Significance: This is India’s sole operational spaceport, serving as the hub for spacecraft and satellite launches since its inception.
How and why was Sriharikota selected as the Launch Site?
1960s Search: India’s search for an ideal launch site began in the 1960s when the country decided to develop indigenous satellites and launch vehicles.
Vikram Sarabhai, the father of India’s space program, tasked EV Chitnis to identify a site on the east coast.
Survey and Acquisition: By October 1968, approximately 40,000 acres of land were acquired in Sriharikota.
Reasons for Choosing Sriharikota:
East Coast Location: Launching rockets eastward takes advantage of Earth’s rotational speed, adding an extra velocity boost of 450 m/s, especially beneficial for geostationary satellites.
Proximity to the Equator: Rockets launching near the equator require less energy to reach geostationary orbits, making the location ideal for such missions.
Uninhabited Area: The site’s sparse population minimizes risks during rocket launches and component re-entry.
Access to the Sea: Proximity to the Bay of Bengal ensures that rocket debris falls into the sea, avoiding hazards to land or human settlements.
Strategic Accessibility: Adequate access to resources, infrastructure, and government support facilitated the development of a robust launch facility.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Denmark has become the latest country to actively pursue sovereign AI, in a bid to boost domestic research and competitiveness. Following this example and leveraging the momentum of Digital India, India’s leadership will be instrumental in driving the nation’s Sovereign AI ambition.
What is Sovereign AI?
Sovereign AI refers to a nation’s autonomous ability to develop, deploy, and regulate Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies that align with its unique data, values, and governance priorities.
It ensures national control over AI systems, protecting economic and national security interests while fostering innovation.
Key Features of Sovereign AI include:
Self-reliance: Develops AI systems tailored to national requirements, ensuring minimal dependency on external technologies.
National Security: Protects critical data and infrastructure from external threats or misuse.
Cultural Alignment: Embeds a nation’s values, language, and societal norms into AI frameworks.
Global Competitiveness: Enhances economic growth and innovation through domestic AI capabilities.
About the Proposed AI Strategy for India (GovAI + Private AI = Sovereign AI):
India’s proposed AI strategy focuses on leveraging Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) like Aadhaar and UPI to develop GovAI (Government AI) for efficient and predictive public services.
It emphasizes data sovereignty, transforming anonymized DPI data into AI training material while ensuring national control.
The strategy promotes public-private collaboration to build domain-specific Small Language Models (SLMs) that evolve into advanced Large Language Models (LLMs).
Skill development through Regional Centres of Excellence (RCoE) aims to create a robust AI talent pool.
This strategy aligns with India’s vision of becoming a global leader in trusted and inclusive AI, enhancing economic growth and national security.
India’s Initiatives for Sovereign AI:
India’s initiative for Sovereign AI builds on its Digital India framework, leveraging platforms like Aadhaar, UPI, and DigiLocker to create GovAI (Government AI) for efficient public services.
It utilizes DPI platforms such as Aadhaar, UPI, DigiLocker, and CoWIN.
Domain-Specific AI Models that India seeks to build:
Builds Small Language Models (SLMs) for specific public service areas like education, healthcare, agriculture, and social welfare.
SLMs evolve into Large Language Models (LLMs) for advanced, intersectional governance insights.
The India Datasets Programme transforms anonymized data into resources for AI training while ensuring data sovereignty.
PYQ:
[2020] In India, the term “Public Key Infrastructure” is used in the context of:
(a) Digital security infrastructure
(b) Food security infrastructure
(c) Health care and education infrastructure
(d) Telecommunication and transportation infrastructure
Researchers at Columbia University found that cells can selectively switch off one parent’s copy of a gene. This may explain why some people with harmful mutations remain symptom-free, and it could lead to new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for genetic disorders.
About the Selective Silencing Mechanism:
Selective gene silencing refers to the process where cells inactivate one parent’s copy of a gene (either maternal or paternal), resulting in an unequal contribution of the two gene copies to cellular function.
Previously thought to be rare, recent research reveals that this phenomenon is relatively common and plays a significant role in genetic variability, disease progression, and individual health outcomes.
Key Features:
Inactivation can vary between different cell types (e.g., immune cells and kidney cells).
The process is dynamic and may change over time, adding complexity to how genes function in the body.
Approximately 1 in 20 active genes in some immune cells exhibit this selective bias.
Implications for Health:
This mechanism helps explain why individuals carrying the same disease-causing mutation can have vastly different symptom severities.
It shifts the understanding of genetic diseases, emphasizing the importance of dynamic gene activity patterns alongside static genetic codes.
The discovery opens up opportunities for novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches by focusing on gene expression rather than genetic sequences.
What are its significant applications?
Selective Gene Manipulation: Therapies could be developed to activate healthy gene copies while suppressing diseased ones, offering a less invasive alternative to traditional genetic editing.
Improved Understanding of Diseases: Selective gene silencing explains variability in conditions like lupus and cancer, revealing why some individuals remain symptom-free.
Precision Medicine: By identifying individual patterns of gene expression, personalized treatment options become possible, reducing the need for one-size-fits-all approaches.
Early Interventions: Recognizing at-risk but asymptomatic individuals allows healthcare providers to implement preventive measures and potentially delay disease onset.
Protein-Based Therapies: Focusing on selective gene activity aids in detecting and differentiating disease-related proteins from healthy ones, paving the way for targeted, protein-specific drugs.
PYQ:
[2014] Consider the following techniques/phenomena:
Budding and grafting in fruit plants
Cytoplasmic male sterility
Gene silencing
Which of the above is/are used to create transgenic crops?
Researchers at the University of California, have developed a nanopore-based diagnostic tool capable of detecting illnesses more quickly and accurately by analyzing signals from individual molecules.
What is the Nanopore-Based Tool?
The Nanopore-Based Tool is a groundbreaking innovation developed by UC Riverside scientists for disease diagnostics.
It leverages nanopores, which are tiny openings capable of detecting individual molecules like DNA and proteins.
By measuring electrical signals generated as molecules pass through the nanopore, the tool enables ultra-sensitive and precise detection of illnesses.
How does it Work?
Biological samples mixed with salts are introduced into the system.
Salts dissociate into ions, creating a flow through the nanopore.
As a DNA or protein molecule passes through the nanopore, it blocks the flow of ions.
This blockage reduces the flow, creating electrical signals.
The system measures the reduction in ion flow to identify the molecule.
Advanced circuitry accounts for missed signals, ensuring precise detection.
Nanopores filter out background noise, unlike traditional systems that require external filters, preserving critical data for accurate diagnostics.
Significance and Features of Nanopore Technology
It helps detect infections within 24 to 48 hours, much faster than traditional methods.
It is crucial for fast-spreading diseases, enabling timely intervention.
It captures signals from single molecules, eliminating the need for large biological samples.
It could revolutionize home testing and clinic-based diagnostics.
It helps Identify subtle differences in proteins, aiding in personalized treatment plans.
It promotes deeper understanding of how proteins impact health and disease.
It paves the way for single-molecule protein sequencing, offering insights beyond DNA sequencing.
PYQ:
[2015] With reference to the use of nanotechnology in health sector, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by nanotechnology.
2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene therapy.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change has introduced amendments to the rules governing the selection of experts in the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC).
Key Highlights of the Revised GEAC Rules:
Conflict of Interest Disclosure: Expert members must disclose any direct or indirect interests that may conflict with their duties. Conflicted members must recuse themselves from decision-making unless specifically requested by the committee.
Transparency Measures: All members are required to submit a detailed record of their professional affiliations from the past 10 years to ensure accountability and unbiased evaluations.
Participation Restrictions: Experts with conflicts of interest must report them before meetings and take steps to ensure that their affiliations do not affect GEAC decisions.
Enhanced Governance: The revised rules aim to strengthen the regulatory process for genetically modified organisms (GMOs), ensuring fair and impartial decision-making.
Supreme Court Compliance: The amendments align with the Supreme Court’s directive (2023) to address concerns of conflict of interest in GM crop approval processes, boosting public trust in GEAC’s role.
Improved Operational Integrity: These changes emphasize transparency, ensuring that scientific appraisals and policy decisions remain free from external influence.
What is Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)?
The GEAC is the apex regulatory body overseeing activities related to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in India, particularly their release into the environment.
It is established under the Rules for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export, and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells (Rules, 1989) framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Structural Mandate:
Operates under the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
Composition:
Chairperson: Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC.
Co-Chairperson: Representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
Includes 24 members, representing key institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), and Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB).
Meets monthly for appraisals and discussions.
Powers and Functions of GEAC:
Powers:
Approves or denies proposals for environmental release of genetically engineered organisms (including GM crops).
Exercises the power to take punitive actions under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 for violations.
Monitors large-scale use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production.
Functions:
Evaluates activities involving the environmental release of GMOs and their products, including experimental field trials.
Ensures compliance with safety protocols to minimize environmental risks.
Reviews applications for the import, export, manufacture, and storage of GM organisms and cells.
Makes recommendations based on a comprehensive assessment of environmental and health impacts.
Addresses concerns related to conflicts of interest and ensures impartiality in decision-making.
Engages with stakeholders, including farmers and environmentalists, to maintain transparency and address public concerns.
PYQ:
[2015] The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is constituted under the:
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
Scientists are deploying two advanced telescopes under the Mediterranean Sea as part of the Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT) project.
What is KM3NeT Project?
The KM3NeT is a European research initiative launched in 2012 and located in the Mediterranean Sea.
It uses advanced water Cherenkov detectors to study high-energy neutrinos and their origins, as well as fundamental neutrino properties.
Key Components:
ARCA (Astroparticle Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Sicily, Italy, at 3,400 meters depth, studying high-energy cosmic neutrinos.
ORCA (Oscillation Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Toulon, France, at 2,475 meters depth, focusing on neutrino oscillations and mass hierarchy.
It detects Cherenkov radiation, faint light produced when neutrinos interact with water molecules, using 6,210 optical modules.
Design:
Modular construction with plans to deploy 12,000 optical modules on 600 vertical strings, anchored to the seabed.
Connected via electro-optical networks to shore stations for power and data processing.
About Neutrinos
Neutrinos are subatomic particles, similar to electrons but without an electric charge.
Neutrinos are the 2nd most abundant particles in the universe after Photons.
Approximately a billion neutrinos pass through a cubic centimetre of space every second.
First detected in 1959, though their existence was theorized in 1931.
High-energy neutrinos, which originate from exotic astrophysical events like supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, or colliding stars, are of particular interest to scientists because:
Neutrinos can travel through dense cosmic environments, such as the dust-shrouded centre of the Milky Way, where visible light telescopes fail.
Neutrino detection depends on observing Cherenkov radiation — light flashes produced when neutrinos interact with water or ice molecules.
Darkness is essential for detecting the faint flashes of Cherenkov radiation.
Why study neutrinos?
Neutrinos provide insights into particle physics, including neutrino oscillations and mass hierarchy, challenging the Standard Model.
Neutrinos pass through dense cosmic regions, offering access to areas invisible to traditional telescopes.
Studying neutrinos aids in tracing cosmic ray origins and understanding dark matter, unlocking mysteries of the universe.
PYQ:
[2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the planning commission as a mega-science project under the 11th Five-year plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
Neutrinos have a negligible, but non-zero mass.
Trillions of Neutrinos pass through the human body every second.
Google has unveiled its latest quantum processor, ‘Willow’, which has sparked excitement about the potential of quantum computers to solve practical problems.
About WillowQuantum Processor:
Google’s team of researchers developed Willow and shared their results in the scientific journal Nature.
Willow has 105 qubits, which are the basic units of information in quantum computers.
Some qubits perform the actual calculations (called data qubits).
Others check for mistakes and fix them (called measurement qubits).
It operates at an extremely low temperature—almost absolute zero (-273.15°C)—to keep its qubits stable.
How fast is It? Willow solved a tough problem in just a few minutes. The same task would take the world’s best regular computer 10 septillion years (that’s 1 followed by 24 zeros!).
Each qubit can stay stable for 100 microseconds (a tiny fraction of a second), which is a big improvement for quantum computers.
Features and Significance
Smarter Error Handling:
Quantum computers are extremely sensitive, and even the tiniest disturbance can cause errors.
Willow uses a system where some qubits (called measurement qubits) are dedicated to spotting and fixing errors without disturbing the main qubits (called data qubits) that are doing the calculations.
Bigger, Better Performance:
Willow has 105 qubits: about half for computations and the rest for error correction.
Most quantum computers become less reliable as more qubits are added. Willow is different—it actually improves its performance as more qubits are included.
Longer Stability:
Qubits in Willow remain stable for 100 microseconds—a significant improvement that allows it to perform more complex tasks.
PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services
(b) Quantum Computing
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies
PYQ Relevance: Q) How is the government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies? (UPSC CSE 2019)
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC Mains has always focused on Drug regulation (2013) and Patent Issues in India (2018).
India ranks as the third largest producer of pharmaceuticals in terms of volume and fourteenth largest in terms of value globally.
Today’s editorial highlights the critical issue of drug quality and safety, particularly concerning pharmaceuticals produced in countries with regulatory frameworks. This content can be used in your Mains answer writing while discussing the implications for public health, especially in low- and middle-income families, where substandard medications can lead to severe health crises.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has flagged over 50 common medications as “Not of Standard Quality” (NSQ), including widely used drugs for conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, and acid reflux.
Notable examples include Telmisartan, Glimepiride, and Paracetamol.
What is India’s Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940?
• It regulates the import, manufacture, and sale or distribution of drugs and cosmetics through licenses and permits. It has to ensure that the drugs and cosmetics marketed in India are reliable, efficient, and in compliance with national standards. • The associated Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945, which were formulated in association with the 1940 Act, provide provisions for classifying medications into schedules and instructions for the storage, sale, presentation, and prescription of each schedule.
Other provisions laid under this Act include: • The Act oversees medication imports into India as well as prohibits the production of inferior or counterfeit pharmaceuticals in the country. • To form a Drugs Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) and Drugs Consultative Committees (DCC) for allopathic and allied drugs, as well as cosmetics.
Salient Features of the Act: • The maximum penalty is life imprisonment and a fine of Rs. 10 lakhs or three times the confiscated goods’ value, whichever is greater. • Other gazette officers and officers from the Central Drug Controller’s Office (CDSCO) are authorized to initiate prosecution under the Act; some offenses are cognizable and non-bailable. • Specialized courts for the trial of offenses covered by the Act and provision for the aggregation of minor offenses.
What are the recent challenges?
1) Regulatory Challenge: Since each state is responsible for licensing and inspecting pharmaceutical manufacturing units located within its territory, it means that there is little that States can do to stop poorly manufactured drugs.
The only tool available to prosecute pharmaceutical companies for Not of Standard Quality (NSQ) drugs is lengthy criminal prosecution.
During trials, companies can continue manufacturing and selling drugs in Karnataka.
2) Verification Issues: Current tender requirements ask companies to disclose blacklisting but lack independent verification methods for procurement officers
CASE STUDY:
Tainted cough syrups from India resulted in the deaths of at least 89 children in Gambia and Uzbekistan. Such incidents underline the urgent need for stringent quality control measures. India and China, are significant players in global drug manufacturing, where they supply a substantial portion of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) used in generic drugs worldwide. However, the regulatory oversight in these regions is often inadequate. For instance, India’s pharmaceutical sector, which accounts for over 20% of the world’s generic drugs, has faced scrutiny following incidents involving contaminated products that have resulted in fatalities abroad.
What are the Socio-economic impacts on the Society?
Social Implications: The WHO estimates that around 10% of medical products in low- and middle-income countries are either substandard or falsified. These medications can lead to treatment failures, increased morbidity, and even mortality.
Economic Implications: The economic burden of substandard medications is profound. Families may spend their limited resources on ineffective treatments, leading to financial strain and loss of trust in healthcare systems. This erosion of confidence can have long-term repercussions on public health initiatives.
How can a centralized database help with drug quality assurance?
A Centralized Drug database will enable agencies like KSMSCL to verify pharmaceutical companies’ credentials before purchasing drugs, and prevent issues like the recent scandal in Maharashtra that involved spurious antibiotics. This will eventually help procurement officers to assess the quality of inspections across states and prioritize manufacturers with rigorous inspection records.
Solutions and Recommendations (Way Forward)
Promoting Information Sharing: Encourage greater collaboration between state drug control departments and public procurement agencies.
Establish a centralized database for drug testing results from all central and state laboratories.
Benefits of Centralized Data: A centralized database would allow drug inspectors to track the failure rates of pharmaceutical companies’ products across the country.
This would enable a risk-based approach in enforcement and procurement decisions, enhancing overall drug quality.
Recommendations: The Union Ministry of Health recommended creating a central register of pharmaceutical manufacturers blacklisted for supplying Not of Standard Quality (NSQ) drugs.
It aims to enhance drug quality and eliminate unreliable suppliers from the market, thereby improving the safety of drugs available in public hospitals.
The Parker Solar Probe has reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface — the closest any human-made object has ever been. At this distance, if the Earth and Sun were 1 meter apart, the probe would be 4 cm from the Sun.
What is theParker Solar Probe?
Details
About
A NASA mission launched on August 12, 2018, as part of the “Living With a Star” program to study the Sun’s corona and solar winds.
Named after Eugene Parker, the first NASA mission named after a living researcher.
Size: Comparable to a small car.
Instruments: Equipped with four instruments to study electric and magnetic fields, plasma, and high-energy particles.
Completed 21 orbits around the Sun and uses Venus flybys to gradually get closer to the Sun.
How did it manage to come so close to the Sun?
On December 24, 2024, it reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface, the closest any human-made object has been.
Technologies:
Heat Shield: A 4.5-inch carbon-composite shield withstands temperatures up to 1,377°C while keeping instruments stable at 29.4°C.
Venus Flybys: Gravitational assists from Venus gradually reduced the orbit.
Speed: Travels at 6,92,000 km/h, making it the fastest human-made object.
Significance of the Mission
Scientific Contributions: Provides insights into why the Sun’s corona is much hotter than its surface and the origins of solar winds.
Practical Implications: Improves predictions of space weather events that affect satellites, power grids, and communications on Earth.
Technological Feat: Demonstrates advanced spacecraft engineering to withstand extreme solar conditions.
PYQ:
[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India
Recent research indicates that age-related losses in our cell’s mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)—specifically, deletion mutations—could be a major driver of aging. These mutations, once they accumulate, reduce the mitochondrion’s ability to produce energy (ATP), causing cell and tissue dysfunction.
What are Mitochondria?
Mitochondria generate most of the cell’s energy (hence called the Powerhouse) in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
They originated from free-living bacteria absorbed by ancient single-celled organisms, retaining a fraction of their own DNA (mtDNA).
Unlike nuclear DNA, mitochondria have their own circular DNA, though limited in size.
Humans inherit mitochondria exclusively from the mother’s egg; sperm-contributed mitochondria are generally not passed on.
They have a double membrane: a relatively permeable outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane (cristae) that maximizes surface area for energy production.
Their inner compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, houses mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), ribosomes, and enzymes for the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and fatty acid β-oxidation.
Mitochondria help regulateintracellular calcium levels, which is crucial for various signalling pathways.
They play a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death) by releasing factors such as cytochrome c when the cell is under severe stress.
Functions of DNA, mRNA, and the gene:
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
Blueprint of Life: Houses genetic instructions in the form of a sequence of bases (A, T, G, C).
Chromosomal Structure: In the nucleus, it is organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans, each carrying numerous genes.
Base-Pairing: Two DNA strands form a double helix via base-pair bonding (A-T, G-C).
Gene:
Functional Unit of DNA: A stretch of DNA containing instructions (a few thousand base-pairs) for making proteins or functional RNA.
Expression: When active, a gene is ‘read’ and transcribed into mRNA.
mRNA (Messenger RNA):
Intermediate Molecule: Carries the gene’s instructions from the DNA (in the nucleus) to the cytoplasm.
Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes read mRNA sequences, translating them into specific proteins.
Functions of the Mitochondrial Genome (mtDNA):
Encodes Key Mitochondrial Proteins:
The mtDNA has 13 protein-coding genes crucial for mitochondrial energy production (ATP synthesis).
It also encodes 24 non-coding genes (like rRNAs and tRNAs), essential for mitochondrial protein synthesis.
Energy Production:
mtDNA-encoded proteins form part of the electron transport chain, where most ATP is produced.
Distinct Inheritance Pattern:
Inherited exclusively from the mother.
Each cell contains multiple mitochondria, each with multiple copies of mtDNA.
Implication in Aging and Disease:
Age-related mutations (deletions, chimeric genes) in mtDNA can lead to functional decline in tissues like muscle and brain.
Loss of intact mtDNA reduces ATP generation, contributing to cellular and tissue ageing.
PYQ:
[2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondria replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.
A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
