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GS Paper: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

  • 100 years of Electroencephalography (EEG)

    Why in the News?

    This year marks the 100th anniversary of the first human electroencephalography (EEG) by German physiologist Hans Berger.

    Historical Development of EEG

    • The development of EEG started with Richard Caton in 1875, who first noticed electrical signals in the brains of animals.
    • His work was expanded by Adolf Beck and later by Vladimir Pravdich-Neminsky, who recorded the first EEG of a dog.
    • Hans Berger was the first to record these signals from a human brain in 1924.

    What is EEG?

    • EEG stands for electroencephalography. “Electro” means electricity, “encephalo” refers to the brain, and “graphy” means recording.
    • It tracks the electrical activity in the brain that happens when neurons, the brain’s cells, move tiny charged particles. 
    • This helps doctors tell if the brain is working normally or not.
    • Doctors use EEG to diagnose epilepsy, check how deep a person is under anesthesia, study sleep patterns, and even confirm if a person has passed away.

    Understanding Volume Conduction

    • Volume conduction explains how the brain’s electrical signals move through different layers like skin and bone to reach the electrodes on the scalp.
    • The signals that electrodes pick up need to be cleaned up from any distortions caused by these layers or other noises before doctors can read them accurately.

    How does an EEG Test Works?

    • Neurons interact with their surroundings and sometimes push ions around.
    • This movement creates waves of electrical activity.
    • Electrodes on the head detect these waves and measure how strong they are, which is then recorded as an EEG.
    • Setting up an EEG involves putting gel on the head and placing electrodes accurately, which can be affected by things like having thick hair.

    What EEG Can and Can’t Show?

    • Strengths: EEG is very good at catching fast changes in the brain’s electrical activity, which is helpful for immediate observations.
    • Limitations: It mainly detects signals from the surface of the brain and is better at picking up signals from certain types of cell parts than others.
      • Pinpointing exactly where the brain an activity started can be difficult.

    Cost and Accessibility

    • EEG is simple and affordable compared to other methods like MRI.
    • It’s portable, doesn’t use large equipment, and is safe.

    PYQ:

    [2015] With reference to ‘Near Field Communication (NFC) Technology’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It is a contactless communication technology that uses electromagnetic radio fields.

    2. NFC is designed for use by devices which can be at a distance of even a metre from each other.

    3. NFC can use encryption when sending sensitive information.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • India-based Neutrino Observatory

    Why in the News?

    • Takaaki Kajita, a Nobel laureate has supported India’s pursuit of a neutrino lab.
      • Despite numerous obstacles, Kajita believes that the India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) project, which would rank as one of the largest basic science projects in the country, is still worth pursuing.

    Who is Takaaki Kajita?

    • Takaaki Kajita is a Japanese physicist who was awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the oscillations of neutrinos from one flavour to another, which proved that those subatomic particles have mass.
    • He shared the prize with Canadian physicist Arthur B. McDonald.16 May 2024

    About India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO):

    Details
    Location INO Peak near Theni, Tamil Nadu, India
    Objective Study atmospheric neutrinos and provide precise measurements of neutrino mixing parameters
    Project Scope One of the largest experimental particle physics projects in India
    Initial Completion Date Originally planned for 2015
    Key Equipment
    • Iron Calorimeter (ICAL) Detector, designed to probe Earth matter effects on neutrino propagation and determine neutrino oscillation parameters.
    • 50,000 tonnes, the world’s largest magnet, four times larger than CERN’s CMS detector magnet
    Research Goals
    • Neutrino Oscillation Parameters: Unambiguous and precise determination using atmospheric neutrinos.
    • Matter Effects: Study through electric charge identification to determine the sign of mass differences.
    • CP Violation: Investigate charge-conjugation and parity violations in the leptonic sector.
    • CPT Violation: Possible studies of charge-conjugation, parity, and time-reversal violations.
    • Kolar Events: Study possible identification of very-high-energy neutrinos and multi-muon events in Kolar Gold Fields.
    Historical Discussions Initial discussions in 1989, formal collaboration in 2001, and MoU signed in 2002
    Current Status Construction stalled as of July 2021 due to local opposition and environmental concerns; ongoing legal and governmental deliberations

     

    What is Neutrinos?

    Neutrinos, often referred to as “ghost particles,” are subatomic particles with nearly zero mass and no electric charge.

    Other issues in space:

    Last week, ISRO Chairman S Somanath expressed the possibility of engaging with the asteroid Apophis during its close approach to Earth at a distance of 32,000 km in 2029.

    What is Apophis?

    • Apophis is classified as a near-Earth asteroid (NEA), specifically a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA) due to its size and proximity to Earth’s orbit.
    • Apophis is approximately 335 meters (1,100 feet) in diameter, making it one of the larger near-Earth asteroids.
    • Discovered in 2004, Apophis initially posed a 2.7% chance of colliding with Earth, raising alarms due to its size (about 450 m wide).
    • Subsequent observations ruled out immediate collision risks in 2029, 2036, and 2068, but it will pass close to Earth in 2029 at 32,000 km.

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the planning commission as a mega-science project under the 11th Five-year plan. In this context, consider the following statements:

    1. Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
    2. Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
    3. Neutrinos have a negligible, but non-zero mass.
    4. Trillions of Neutrinos pass through the human body every second.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 1, 2 and 3 only

    (c) 2, 3 and 4

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • Breaking the taboo around men’s reproductive health  

    Why in the news? 

    Following World Population Day (July 11), amidst discussions on global population dynamics, it is essential to highlight a topic often overlooked in conversations about reproductive health: male infertility.

    World Health Organization (WHO) Global Perspective on infertility:

    • Prevalence: WHO estimates that 60 million to 80 million couples worldwide experience infertility.
    • Male vs. Female Infertility: Globally, male infertility accounts for approximately 50% of all infertility cases.

    Issues Specific to India:

    • Data Deficiency: Unlike global estimates, specific prevalence data for infertility in India are outdated (from ICMR guidelines in 2005) and not comprehensive.
    • Male Infertility: In India, male infertility constitutes a significant portion of all infertility cases, estimated to be around 50%, mirroring global trends.
    • Contributing Factors: Unique challenges in India include environmental pollution, pesticide exposure in agriculture, lifestyle changes including late marriages and stress, which contribute to rising infertility rates.
    • Access to Treatment: Disparities in access to advanced infertility treatments exist, with urban areas having better access compared to rural regions.
    • Cultural and Social Stigma: Infertility remains stigmatized in Indian society, affecting mental health and social well-being of affected couples, and hindering open discussions and seeking timely medical help.

    What are the actual causes of infertility?   

    • Male Factors: Low sperm count (oligospermia) or poor sperm motility (asthenozoospermia). Anatomical issues such as blocked sperm ducts or varicocele. Hormonal imbalances, genetic factors, and environmental influences like exposure to toxins.
    • Female Factors: Ovulation disorders, including hormonal imbalances like PCOS. Structural issues like blocked fallopian tubes or uterine abnormalities. Endometriosis, is a condition where tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows outside the uterus.
    • Shared Factors: Age-related decline in fertility. Lifestyle factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and obesity. Medical conditions like cancer and its treatments, autoimmune disorders, and certain medications affecting fertility.

    Treatment options

    • Semen Analysis: Essential for diagnosing male infertility, conducted after a period of sexual abstinence.
    • Medical Consultation: Vital to identify underlying causes, whether physical (e.g., blocked sperm flow, anatomical issues) or genetic.
    • Corrective Surgeries: Address issues like blocked sperm ducts, undescended testicles, or anatomical abnormalities affecting sperm production and flow.

    Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART):

    • Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): Effective for cases of severe male infertility where sperm count is extremely low.
    • Intrauterine Insemination (IUI): Suitable when sperm motility is good but count is low, facilitating fertilization within the uterus.
    • In vitro Fertilisation (IVF): Used when both sperm count and motility are low, involving fertilization outside the body before implantation.
    • Donor Sperm Insemination or Adoption: Options for couples where male infertility is irreparable, providing alternative paths to parenthood.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhanced Data Collection and Research: Update and expand prevalence data on infertility in India through national surveys and research initiatives. This should include both urban and rural populations to understand regional disparities.
    • Public Awareness and Support Programs: Launch nationwide campaigns to raise awareness about infertility as a medical condition, debunk myths, and reduce stigma.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and adequate health care policies are needed particularly in the fields of geriatric and maternal health care. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • [pib] 25th PM-STIAC Meeting

    Why in the News?

    The 25th Prime Minister’s Science, Technology & Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) meeting was recently held at Vigyan Bhawan Annexe in New Delhi.

    Highlights of the 25th PM-STIAC Meet

    • The meeting was aimed to discuss robust policy formulation for effective Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) in India.
    • Focus was on India’s carbon market, carbon credit scheme, and strategies to achieve a 45% reduction in emission intensity by 2030 and Net Zero by 2070.

    About PM-STIAC

    Details
    Objective Provide advice on STI policies and oversee implementation of the government’s STI vision
    Establishment 2018
    Chairperson Principal Scientific Adviser (PSA) to the Government of India
    Composition Eminent scientists, technologists, and innovators from various fields
    Key Roles and Functions
    • Policy Advice
    • Inter-Ministerial Coordination
    • Project Oversight
    • Innovation Ecosystem Promotion
    • Global Collaboration
    • Public Engagement
    • Policy and Program Development
    Major Initiatives and Missions
      1. NM-ICPS: Cyber-Physical Systems Innovation Hubs
      2. Quantum Frontier Mission: Quantum Technologies
      3. AI Mission: AI for Inclusive Growth
      4. Electric Mobility Mission: Promote EVs
      5. Waste to Wealth Mission: Sustainable Waste Management
      6. Health and Well-being Mission: Improve Healthcare Delivery
      7. AGNIi: Accelerating Growth of New India’s Innovations
    • Deep Ocean Exploration

    What is Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)?

    Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is a technology aimed at reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from industrial processes and power generation.

    It involves three main steps:

    1. Capture:
      • CO₂ is separated and captured from industrial emissions or directly from the air.
      • Capture technologies include pre-combustion, post-combustion, and oxy-fuel combustion.
    2. Utilization:
      • Captured CO₂ is converted into useful products such as chemicals, fuels, and building materials.
      • Utilization helps in creating economic value from CO₂ and can support the development of a circular carbon economy.
    3. Storage:
      • CO₂ is transported and stored in geological formations such as depleted oil and gas fields, deep saline aquifers, or basalt formations.
      • This prevents CO₂ from entering the atmosphere, thereby mitigating climate change.

    Significance:

    • Climate Change Mitigation: Reduces greenhouse gas emissions, helping to meet climate targets.
    • Energy Transition: Supports the transition to low-carbon energy systems.
    • Economic Benefits: Generates new economic opportunities through the creation of new markets for CO₂-derived products.

    Policy Initiatives for CCUS in India

    • National Hydrogen Energy Mission (2021):
      • Launched in 2021, the mission aims to promote the production and use of green hydrogen, with CCUS being a crucial component for producing blue hydrogen from natural gas.
    • Department of Science and Technology (DST) Initiatives:
      • DST has funded various research projects focusing on developing CCUS technologies since the early 2000s.
      • Projects include capturing CO₂ from industrial sources and converting it into valuable products like methanol and synthetic fuels.
    • National Carbon Capture, Utilization & Storage Policy Framework and Its Deployment Mechanism (2020):
      • Established in 2020, the framework aims to create a roadmap for deploying CCUS technologies across various sectors.
      • It focuses on enhancing research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) activities and creating enabling regulatory and policy environments.
    • Industry Collaborations:
      • Collaborations with industries such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) for pilot projects on CCUS.
      • Public-private partnerships to foster innovation and scale up CCUS technologies have been ongoing since the 2010s.
    • International Collaborations (CSLF, 2003):
      • India joined the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF) in 2003, which promotes international collaboration on CCUS technology development.
      • Collaborations with countries like the United States and the United Kingdom for knowledge sharing and technical support.
    • Green Energy Corridors (2015):
      • Integration of CCUS with renewable energy initiatives to ensure a sustainable and low-carbon energy mix.
      • Established in 2015, this initiative supports developing infrastructure for transporting and storing captured CO₂.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Which one of the following statements best describes the term ‘Social Cost of Carbon’?

    (a) It is a measure, in monetary value, of the long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emissions in a given year.

    (b) Requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.

    (c) Efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live-in a new place.

    (d) Contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.

  • Indigenous HPV vaccine, the rhetoric and the reality

    Why in the news?

    Recent discourse suggests HPV vaccination prevents cervical cancer, but evidence linking HPV to cancer is inconclusive and most infected individuals don’t develop cancer, raising doubts about vaccine necessity.

    What is Cervical Cancer?

    Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the cells lining the cervix, which is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It is usually a slow-growing cancer that may not have symptoms in its early stages.

    Present  trends of cervical cancer prevalence in India and the Globe                

    • Global Trends: Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women globally, with an estimated 604,000 new cases and 342,000 deaths reported in 2020. 
      • Mortality rates vary widely by region, with the highest rates observed in low- and middle-income countries due to limited access to screening and treatment.
    • Trends in India: In India, cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among women aged 15-44 years. It accounts for approximately 17% of all female cancer deaths in the country, with over 97,000 new cases reported annually.

     

    Recent debate – How does vaccination against HPV prevent cervical cancer and consequent death?                                                       

    • Efficacy Against HPV Infection and Cervical Cancer: HPV vaccines target high-risk HPV types, notably types 16 and 18, which are responsible for a significant proportion of cervical cancer cases worldwide. 
      • Clinical trials and real-world data consistently demonstrate the effectiveness of HPV vaccines in reducing HPV infection rates and preventing cervical cancer.
    • Public Health Impact and Benefits: Countries with high HPV vaccination coverage have observed significant declines in HPV infection rates and cervical cancer incidence among vaccinated populations. 
      • Vaccination programs aim to achieve herd immunity, thereby reducing overall transmission of HPV and protecting unvaccinated individuals.
    • Debate and Challenges: Debate surrounds the universal versus selective vaccination strategies, with considerations on cost-effectiveness, accessibility, and cultural acceptance.
      • Challenges include vaccine hesitancy, particularly in some regions, as well as affordability and logistical barriers to widespread vaccination coverage.

    Challenges Prevalent in Vaccine Manufacturing    

    • Complex Manufacturing Processes: Vaccine manufacturing involves complex biological processes and stringent quality control measures. 
      • Developing and scaling up production requires specialized facilities and skilled personnel, which can be costly and time-consuming to establish.
    • High Regulatory Standards: Vaccines are subject to rigorous regulatory scrutiny to ensure safety, efficacy, and consistency. 
      • Meeting regulatory requirements in multiple jurisdictions adds complexity and may delay the approval and market entry of new vaccines.
    • Supply Chain and Distribution: Maintaining a reliable supply chain for vaccine components and ensuring cold chain storage and distribution are critical challenges. 
      • This becomes even more pronounced in resource-constrained settings or during global health emergencies where demand surges.

    Its Impact on India                     

    • Delayed Access to Affordable Vaccines: India’s capability to produce vaccines at scale is hindered by stringent patent laws and complex regulatory requirements. 
      • This delays the availability of affordable vaccines domestically, impacting public health initiatives and access for vulnerable populations.
    • Economic and Health Implications: High costs associated with vaccine development and production limit affordability and accessibility, exacerbating healthcare inequalities. 
      • This affects India’s ability to address preventable diseases effectively, impacting public health outcomes and economic productivity.

    Unavailability of Competing Vaccines and Future Scope

    • Lack of Market Competition: Despite the expiration of earlier patents, there is a notable absence of competing HPV vaccines from domestic manufacturers in India. 
      • This limits options for consumers and healthcare providers, potentially leading to higher prices and reduced accessibility, particularly in the private market.
    • Potential for Future Development: Several Indian biotech companies had announced plans to develop HPV vaccines, indicating a future scope for competition and potentially lower prices. 
      • However, these initiatives have not materialized into market-ready products, highlighting challenges in vaccine development and commercialization in India’s regulatory and economic environment.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote Research and Development Incentives: Encourage and support Indian biotech companies through research grants, tax incentives, and streamlined regulatory pathways for HPV vaccine development.  
    • Enhance Public-Private Partnerships: Foster collaborations between government entities, academic institutions, and private-sector vaccine manufacturers to improve vaccine accessibility and affordability. 

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society? (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • Hepatitis A vaccination will be cost-effective in Kerala: study

    Why in the News? 

    • Hepatitis A infection in Kerala is shifting from early childhood to adolescents and young adults due to better sanitation and hygiene practices.
      • The inclusion of hepatitis A vaccination into the mainstream immunization program for both one-year-old children and 15-year-old individuals in Kerala shows cost-effectiveness and success.

    Present State in Kerala and Overall India:

    • At the Regional level (Kerala): Kerala has been experiencing regular hepatitis A outbreaks, with the 2024 outbreak being particularly severe.
      • As of May 30, over 2,400 cases and 18 deaths have been reported, mainly in districts like Kozhikode, Malappuram, Thrissur, and Ernakulam.
    • At the National Level: Severity in Different Age Groups: Almost 50% of children aged 1-5 years in India were found to be susceptible to the hepatitis A virus.
      • However, the hepatitis A vaccine is currently only available for those who can afford it, and is not part of the national immunization program.

    About Hepatitis A infection:

    • The infection is usually mild or asymptomatic in children under six years but can be symptomatic and severe in older children, adolescents, and adults, occasionally leading to liver injury and fatalities.
    • India has recently launched its first indigenously developed hepatitis A vaccine, called Havisure:
      • Havisure was launched in January 2024 by Indian Immunologicals Limited (IIL), a subsidiary of the National Dairy Development Board.
      • IIL plans to manufacture up to 1 million doses of Havisure per year initially, focusing on the domestic market first.
    Types of Hepatitis Cause Vaccine
    Hepatitis A (HAV) Spread through ingestion of contaminated food or water. Hepatitis A vaccine (e.g., Havrix, Vaqta)
    Hepatitis B (HBV) Spread through contact with infectious body fluids (blood, semen, etc.) Hepatitis B vaccine (e.g., Engerix-B, Recombivax HB)
    Hepatitis C (HCV)  Spread primarily through blood-to-blood contact, often via injection drug use or unsafe medical procedures. No vaccine is available currently. Treatment focuses on antiviral medications
    Hepatitis D (HDV) Requires HBV as a co-infection to cause illness. No specific vaccine for HDV. Prevention relies on hepatitis B vaccination.
    Hepatitis E (HEV) Spread through ingestion of contaminated water, similar to HAV A vaccine is available in some regions (e.g., Hecolin in China), but not widely used. Prevention mainly involves improving sanitation and safe drinking water

    Benefits of Hepatitis A Vaccination in Kerala:

    • Lifelong Immunity: Vaccination provides lifelong immunity against the hepatitis A virus, protecting individuals from severe infections and health complications later in life.
    • Less Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: Studies have shown that vaccinating children aged one year and adolescents aged 15 years in Kerala using either live attenuated or inactivated vaccines is cost-effective.
      • Vaccination prevents future healthcare expenditures associated with treating hepatitis A infections.
    • Increase in Household savings: Implementing vaccination for adolescents could save Kerala ₹5,872 million to ₹10,553 million over five years, depending on the type of vaccine used.
    • Equal and Universal Accessibility: Due to the inclusion in the universal immunization program, these vaccines are accessible throughout all sections of society, whether rich or poor.

    Government Initiatives:

    • National Viral Hepatitis Control Program (NVHCP): The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare launched the NVHCP in July 2018 to prevent and control viral hepatitis in India.
      • The program aims to combat hepatitis and achieve country-wide elimination of hepatitis C by 2030, reduce morbidity and mortality associated with hepatitis B and C, and reduce the risk, morbidity, and mortality due to hepatitis A and E.
    • State-Level Initiatives: Some states like Punjab, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, and Haryana have started free or subsidized hepatitis C treatment programs.
      • Haryana launched its own Hepatitis Control Program in 2013 at PGIMS Rohtak, which was later expanded to all district civil hospitals in the state in 2017.

    What is the Prime challenge?

    • Achieving high vaccination coverage among adolescents, who are not covered under the universal immunization program, remains a challenge. Strategies such as school-based vaccination campaigns are proposed to enhance this kind of coverage.

    Conclusion:  Implement targeted vaccination campaigns in schools and communities to ensure high coverage among adolescents aged 15 years, who are not currently included in Kerala’s universal immunization program. This can be achieved through collaboration with schools, healthcare providers, and community organizations to raise awareness and facilitate easy access to vaccinations.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines? (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) Cases in Kerala

    Why in the News?

    There have been four cases, including three deaths, of the rare, but fatal brain-eating primary amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) in Kerala in the last two months.

    What is Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)?

    • PAM is a rare brain infection caused by Naegleria fowleri, a free-living amoeba found in warm freshwater and soil worldwide.
      • An amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
      • Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments.
    • The amoeba enters the body through the nose, typically during activities like swimming, and travels to the brain, causing severe damage.
    • PAM is also non-communicable.
    • Symptoms: Headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, and coma.
      • According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.

    Diagnosis and Treatment:

    • Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
    • Diagnosis involves PCR tests of cerebrospinal fluid, though detection can be challenging due to the rarity of PAM.
    • Treatment follows CDC guidelines, including miltefosine, Azithromycin, and Amphotericin B, with miltefosine recently procured by the State Health Department from Germany.
      • Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.

  • What makes mosquitoes suck blood?

    Why in the News?

    A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) 1 has suggested that a pair of hormones work together to activate or suppress mosquitoes’ blood cravings.

    Mosquito Species and Behavior

    • There are around 3500 mosquito species globally, found on every continent except Antarctica.
    • Female mosquitoes consume blood to aid in egg development.
    • After feeding, female mosquitoes lose their appetite for blood until they lay their eggs.

    Research by Michael Strand and Team

    • Strand observed that levels of the mosquito gut hormone F (NPF) spiked when mosquitoes were seeking a host and dropped after feeding.
    • Their study analyzed mosquito enteroendocrine cells responsible for gut hormone production.
    • Hormonal Mechanisms:
      • NPF levels increased before blood meals and decreased six hours after feeding.
      • Another gut hormone, RYamide, was found to influence mosquitoes’ blood lust. As NPF levels decreased after a blood meal, RYamide levels increased, and vice versa.
      • The researchers concluded that NPF and RYamide work together to regulate mosquitoes’ attraction to humans and other hosts.

    Implications of the Study

    • Controlling the Deadliest Animal: Mosquitoes are the deadliest animal on the planet, acting as vectors for diseases such as malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, yellow fever, Zika, chikungunya, and lymphatic filariasis, which collectively kill more people than any other creature.
    • Pesticide Development: The discovery could lead to new pesticide targets for preventing mosquito reproduction and disease transmission.

    Note: Mosquitoes are responsible for over 1 million human deaths per year worldwide. They transmit deadly diseases like malaria, yellow fever, dengue, and Zika virus

    PYQ:

    [2023] ‘Wolbachia method’ is sometimes talked about with reference to which one of the following?

    (a) Controlling the viral diseases spread by mosquitoes
    (b) Converting crop residues into packing material
    (c) Producing biodegradable plastics
    (d) Producing biochar from thermo-chemical conversion of biomass

  • Universe had Spiral Galaxies 4 billion years sooner than expected: Study

    Why in the News?

    A new study has revealed more spiral galaxies in the universe’s youth than astronomers had previously expected.

    Universe’s Age and Galaxy Types

    • The universe is about 13.8 billion years old and hosts various kinds of galaxies, from spiral to elliptical.
    • Astronomers believed spiral galaxies formed about 6 billion years ago, but the new study calls this into question.
    • Younger galaxies tend to spiral, while older ones have a variety of shapes, making the study of older galaxies more challenging due to fainter light.

    Back2Basics: Spiral Galaxy

    • Spiral galaxies are a type of galaxy characterized by their spiral structure.
    • They are among the most common types of galaxies in the universe.
    • Our own Milky Way is a classic example of a spiral galaxy.

    Key Characteristics:

    • Central Bulge: A dense, spherical structure at the centre composed mainly of older stars.
    • Disk: Surrounding the bulge is a flat, rotating disk of stars, gas, and dust. The disk contains younger stars and spiral arms.
    • Spiral Arms: These are the defining features, winding outward from the central bulge. The arms are sites of active star formation and appear brighter due to the presence of young, hot stars.
    • Halo: A roughly spherical region surrounding the disk, containing old stars and globular clusters.

    Formation and Evolution:

    • Spiral galaxies are thought to form from the gravitational collapse of gas and dust in the early universe.
    • They maintain their structure through the rotation of the disk and the gravitational influence of the central bulge and halo.
    • Interactions and mergers with other galaxies can distort or destroy their spiral structure, potentially transforming them into elliptical galaxies.

    Formation of Galaxies

    • As the universe cooled from a dense plasma state, hot gas formed clumps that became galaxies.
    • These early galaxies had irregular shapes and lacked disks.
    • Spiral Formation Theory:
      • The traditional theory suggested that it took billions of years for hot, thick disks to become thinner and form spiral arms.
      • The new study suggests that cooling and spiral formation occur around the same cosmic time.

    How is this verified?

    • Astronomers observe star formation in real time but study galaxy evolution through “astronomical archaeology.”
      • Understanding the fraction of spiral galaxies helps astronomers trace the biography of galaxies.
      • Infrared and optical wavelengths are used to detect early galaxies, requiring powerful telescopes due to the faint light of older galaxies.
    • Study Methodology:
      • The University of Missouri team used the JWST to study 873 galaxies and identified at least 216 spiral galaxies, some dating to 1.5 billion years after the universe’s birth.
      • Each of the six authors classified the images as spiral or non-spiral, ensuring the result is free of human bias.

    Findings and Implications

    • The fraction of spiral galaxies increased from about 8% to 48% between 3 billion and 7 billion years after the Big Bang, higher than previously observed.
    • The study challenges existing models and suggests that galaxy formation theories need to be more complex.

    PYQ:

    [2022] Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race?

  • Digital jurisprudence in India, in an AI era  

    Why in the news?

    Generative AI’s transformative potential challenges existing legal frameworks and judicial precedents, which are inadequate for effectively governing this rapidly-evolving technology designed for a pre-AI world.

    What is Generative AI?

    • Generative AI refers to artificial intelligence models that can generate original content like text, images, videos, and audio in response to prompts or requests.
    • These models learn patterns from large datasets and use that knowledge to create new content that resembles the training data.

    Persistent and Contentious Issues in Internet Governance

    Safe Harbour and Liability Fixation:

    • The Shreya Singhal judgment upholds Section 79 of the IT Act, granting intermediaries ‘safe harbour’ protection against liability for hosted content, contingent upon meeting due diligence requirements.
    • Challenges arise in applying these provisions to GAI tools, with debates on whether they should be classified as intermediaries, conduits, or active creators.
    • The Delhi High Court’s ruling in the Christian Louboutin Sas vs Nakul Bajaj and Ors (2018) case limited safe harbour protection to “passive” intermediaries.
    • The classification of GAI tools complicates the assignment of liability, especially in cases of user reposts.

    Generative AI and Legal Conflicts:

    • GAI outputs have led to legal conflicts, such as a lawsuit in the U.S. against OpenAI for defamation by ChatGPT.
    • Ambiguities in classifying GAI tools complicate legal decisions regarding liability.

    What Does the Indian Copyright Act 1957 Say?

    • Section 16 specifies that copyright protection is granted only under the provisions of the Act, with reluctance globally to extend protection to AI-generated works.
    • Critical questions include whether existing copyright laws should be revised for AI, the need for co-authorship with humans, and the responsibility for copyright infringement by AI tools.
    • The 161st Parliamentary Standing Committee Report highlights the inadequacy of the Copyright Act to facilitate AI authorship and ownership.
    • Current Indian law allows copyright owners to take legal action against infringement, but liability for AI-generated content remains unclear.

    Steps to Pursue (Way forward)

    • Learning by Doing: Implement a sandbox approach, granting temporary immunity from liability to GAI platforms for responsible development and data gathering to inform future regulations.
    • Data Rights and Responsibilities: Overhaul the data acquisition process for GAI training, ensuring legal compliance, proper licensing, and compensation for intellectual property used in training models. Potential solutions include revenue-sharing or licensing agreements with data owners.
    • Simplify the Licensing: Licensing data for GAI is complex due to the lack of a centralized licensing body for web data. The creation of centralized platforms, similar to stock photo websites, can simplify licensing, streamline access to data, and ensure data integrity against bias and discrimination.
    • Government and Judicial Approach to maximize the benefits of GAI: A comprehensive re-evaluation of existing digital jurisprudence is needed, requiring a holistic, government-wide approach and judicious interpretations by constitutional courts. The aim is to maximize the benefits of GAI while safeguarding individual rights and protecting against unwelcome harm.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) hasinitiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)