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GS Paper: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

  • New frog species ‘Leptobrachium aryatium’ discovered in Assam

    Why in the News?

    A 21-year-long study has resulted in the discovery of a new frog species, Leptobrachium aryatium, named after Arya Vidyapeeth College in Assam.

    About the frog ‘Leptobrachium aryatium’

    • Leptobrachium aryatium, a newly discovered species of frog, was found in the Garbhanga Reserve Forest, located on the southwestern edge of Guwahati, Assam, near the Meghalaya border.
    • The species was identified through a re-analysis of past research and new studies on the Leptobrachium genus.
    • Key Features:
      • Distinctive Eyes: The frog has fiery orange-and-black eyes, setting it apart from other species in the genus.
      • Reticulated Throat Pattern: A unique reticulated pattern on its throat adds to its distinct appearance.
      • Smooth, Rhythmic Call: Emits a smooth, rhythmic call at dusk, a feature unique to this species in the genus.
      • Molecular and Morphological Distinctiveness: DNA analysis and physical studies confirmed it as a new species, distinguished by its unique call and appearance.
    [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?

    (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast

     

  • India’s first-ever Seed Germination Database

    Why in the News?

    On April 16, 2025, the Ecological Restoration Alliance-India (ERA-I) has released a first-of-its-kind seed germination database aimed at enhancing the success of growing native plants for ecological restoration.

    About the Seed Germination Database:

    • It was launched by the Ecological Restoration Alliance-India (ERA-I).  ERA was formed in July 2021, as an informal collective between practitioners, ecologists and individuals.
    • ERA-I collaborated with organizations like Auroville Botanical Gardens, NCF, and Wildlife Trust of India.
    • It features over 1,000 germination techniques for 465 native plant species found across India.
    • It aims to help restoration practitioners, nursery managers, and native plant enthusiasts improve success rates in growing plants for ecological restoration.
    • It is a free-access database and offers valuable information on germinating native plants crucial for restoration projects.
    • Native Plants Included:
      • The database features a diverse array of native plant species. These species are key to restoring balance in degraded ecosystems.
      • They are – Aegle marmelos (Wood apple), Bauhinia racemosa (Beedi leaf tree), Ficus benghalensis (Banyan), Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), Ziziphus mauritiana (Indian jujube), Knema attenuata (Wild nutmeg), Lawsonia inermis (Henna), Madhuca longifolia (Mahua), Vachellia nilotica (Babool).

    Significance:

    • Native plants are essential for creating climate-resilient ecosystems.
    • Such database plays a vital role in ecological restoration.
    • It provides 1,000+ techniques for growing native plants, enhancing the success of restoration projects.
    • The database supports India’s Bonn Challenge commitment to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
    [UPSC 2016] In the context of food and nutritional security of India, enhancing the ‘Seed Replacement Rates’ of various crops helps in achieving the food production targets of the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in its wider/greater implementation?

    1. There is no National Seeds Policy in place.

    2. There is no participation of private sector seed companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting materials of horticultural crops.

    3. There is a demand-supply gap regarding quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops. Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only * (c) 2 and 3 only (d) None of the above

     

  • How govern-mentality exacerbates the problem of farmers’ stubble burning

    Why in the News?

    A new study by researchers Sujit Raghunathrao Jagadale and Javed M. Shaikh from IIM Amritsar looks at the issue of stubble burning by examining how government policies and market systems are failing to manage the problem effectively.

    Why do farmers continue stubble burning despite its harm to air quality?

    • Cost-Effective Method: Stubble burning is the cheapest way for farmers to clear their fields after harvesting. Eg: Farmers burn stubble to quickly prepare their land for the next crop, especially for wheat, without incurring high labor or machinery costs.
    • Lack of Affordable Alternatives: There are limited affordable and efficient alternatives to stubble burning. Eg: Farmers often do not have access to technology or subsidies for machines that can manage stubble, such as Happy Seeder or bio-decomposers.
    • Government’s Focus on High-Yield Crops: The Minimum Support Price (MSP) policy incentivizes the cultivation of wheat and rice, leading to monocropping. Eg: Farmers are encouraged to grow rice continuously, which results in an abundance of stubble that needs to be disposed of quickly.
    • Debt and Economic Pressure: Many farmers face financial pressures, including debt and low returns on their crops, which makes burning stubble a way to save time and money. Eg: Farmers often sell their crops to middlemen at low prices, leaving them with insufficient income to invest in sustainable farming practices.
    • Lack of Strong Enforcement or Support: Although stubble burning is penalized, enforcement of laws is weak, and farmers often feel the state does not provide adequate support for eco-friendly methods. Eg: Despite penalties, farmers feel little pressure to change practices when there is insufficient governmental support or infrastructure for alternatives.

    How does India’s MSP policy influence stubble burning?

    • Encourages Monocropping: The MSP policy promotes the cultivation of high-yield crops like rice and wheat, leading to monocropping, which results in a large amount of stubble that must be cleared. Eg: Farmers in Punjab often grow rice followed by wheat, creating a cycle where large quantities of rice stubble need to be burned to prepare the soil for the next crop.
    • Limits Crop Diversification: The MSP system prioritizes wheat and rice over other crops, making it economically unfeasible for farmers to switch to more sustainable practices or crops that would reduce stubble burning. Eg: Despite the potential for growing other crops, farmers focus on rice and wheat to benefit from MSP, leaving them with stubble that they have no economically viable option to manage.
    • Financial Constraints: The MSP rates for crops like rice and wheat have remained stagnant, making it harder for farmers to invest in alternatives to stubble burning, such as machinery or composting. Eg: With wheat MSP seeing only minimal increases, farmers struggle to cover costs for labor and inputs, leading them to resort to stubble burning as the most cost-effective option to clear fields.

    What has the government done in this situation?

    • Implemented Subsidies for Machinery: The government has provided subsidies for the purchase of machinery like the Happy Seeder to help farmers manage stubble without burning. Eg: The Punjab government has distributed equipment like straw management machines under the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization to reduce stubble burning.
    • Awareness Campaigns: The government has conducted awareness programs to educate farmers about the harmful effects of stubble burning and encourage them to adopt alternative practices. Eg: The Ministry of Agriculture and local bodies in states like Punjab and Haryana have launched campaigns to raise awareness about the environmental and health risks of stubble burning.
    • Legal Measures and Penalties: Various state governments, including Punjab, have imposed fines and penalties on farmers found burning stubble, aiming to deter the practice. Eg: The Punjab government introduced a fine for stubble burning, with penalties reaching up to Rs 2,500 for each violation, although enforcement remains challenging.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote Crop Diversification: Encourage farmers to shift from paddy to less water-intensive and non-stubble-generating crops through assured procurement and better MSP for alternative crops. Eg: Incentivize crops like millets and pulses to reduce stubble generation.
    • Strengthen Support and Infrastructure: Scale up access to sustainable stubble management technologies and ensure timely financial and logistic support to small and marginal farmers. Eg: Expand reach of Happy Seeder and bio-decomposer solutions through local cooperatives and custom hiring centers.

    Mains PYQ:

     [UPSC 2015] Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three Mega cities of the country but the air pollution is much more serious probelm in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so?

    Linkage: Delhi’s severe air pollution, especially at certain times of the year, is caused by a combination of its location in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, nearby states burning crop stubble, and weather conditions that trap pollutants.

  • [pib] Indian researchers introduce ‘Toxicity Standard’ of PM2.5 Pollution

    Why in the News?

    A recent study conducted in Kolkata shows that the toxicity value of PM2.5 experiences a sudden jump when the pollution level reaches around 70 µg/m³.

    About PM2.5

    • PM2.5 refers to fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller.
    • It is a major air pollutant linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Long-term exposure increases the risk of lung cancer, heart disease, asthma, and other health issues.
    • Major sources include vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, construction dust, biomass burning, and solid waste burning, contributing to both outdoor and indoor pollution.
    • WHO recommends that the annual average PM2.5 concentration should NOT exceed 5 µg/m³, and the 24-hour average should not exceed 15 µg/m³ for more than 3-4 days per year.

    PM2.5 on Govt. Focus: National Clean Air Program (NCAP)

    • Launched in 2019 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), the NCAP aims to reduce particulate matter by 40% by 2026 compared to 2017 levels.
    • It targets 131 non-attainment cities across India, focusing on improving air quality and addressing sources of pollution.

    About the Notified Toxicity Standard for PM2.5 

    • A new toxicity standard for PM2.5 in Kolkata sets the critical threshold at 70 µg/m³.
    • Below this level, toxicity remains stable, but it sharply increases once the concentration exceeds 70 µg/m³.
    • It emphasizes reducing pollution sources, particularly biomass and solid waste burning, which contribute significantly to high PM2.5 levels and increased toxicity in Kolkata.
    • Policy Recommendation: To reduce health risks, air quality control measures should aim to keep PM2.5 levels below 70 µg/m³.
    [UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

    1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 µg/m3 and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 µg/m3.

    2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

    3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.

    4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1, 3 and 4  (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

     

  • CPCB revises Classification of Industries

    Why in the News?

    The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has recently updated its classification of industries, introducing a new category known as the ‘Blue Category.’

    Classification of Industries by CPCB:

    • The CPCB classifies industries based on their environmental impact, focusing on air pollution, water pollution, and hazardous waste generation.
    • Industries are classified using the Pollution Index (PI), which is calculated by considering air, water, and waste pollution, with equal weight given to each factor.
    • PI Categories:
      1. White: PI < 25 (least polluting industries)
      2. Green: 25 ≤ PI < 55
      3. Orange: 55 ≤ PI < 80
      4. Red: PI > 80 (most polluting industries)
    • This system helps determine industry locations, inspection norms, and pollution-related health impacts.
    • It is regulated by the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to improve environmental standards.
    • Presently 419 industrial sectors are categorized into Red, Orange, Green, White, and Blue.

    About the ‘Blue’ Category (Newly Introduced):

    • The Blue Category was introduced for industries providing Essential Environmental Services (EES) like pollution management and waste control.
    • It recognizes industries involved in critical environmental management, such as waste-to-energy plants, sewage treatment plants, and landfill management.
    • Industries in the Blue category receive a 2-year extension on their consent to operate as an incentive for their role in managing pollution.
    • Scope: Includes industries that manage waste from both domestic and industrial sources, such as:
      • Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Plants: Now in the Blue category despite their high PI, due to their role in waste energy recovery.
      • Compressed Biogas (CBG) Plants: Classified as Blue for their low environmental impact when processing municipal waste and agro residue.
      • Sewage Treatment Plants & Landfills: These facilities manage environmental hazards through controlled waste disposal.
    • Blue category industries must comply with all environmental norms, and their Pollution Index is still calculated as per the standard formula.
    • Industries showing successful management may receive extended operating permits and other incentives.
    [UPSC 2021] With reference to furnace oil, consider the following statements:

    1.It is a product of oil refineries. 2.Some industries use it to generate power. 3.Its use causes sulfur emissions into the environment.

    (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

     

  • Extinct Dire Wolf species returns after 12,500 years

    Why in the News?

    Colossal Biosciences, a biotech firm based in US, has successfully bred the extinct Dire Wolf pups using gene-editing technologies.

    About Dire Wolf (Aenocyon dirus)

    • The dire wolf lived during the Pleistocene Epoch, approximately 6 million to 11,700 years ago, and went extinct around 13,000 years ago.
    • Physical Characteristics and Behaviour:
      • It was larger than the modern gray wolf, standing about 5 feet tall at the shoulder and weighing up to 150 pounds, significantly heavier than the average gray wolf.
      • It had a stockier body, a robust skull, and powerful jaws, adapted for hunting and consuming large prey. It likely had light or white fur, unlike the gray, black, or white coats of modern wolves.
      • As an apex predator, the dire wolf primarily preyed on large mammals like bison and horses.
      • While it did not hunt in packs as effectively due to its size, it was capable of cooperative hunting when needed.
    • Extinction:
      • The species went extinct likely due to a combination of prey depletion, climate change, and the impact of human activities.
      • Fossils have been found across a wide geographical range, from the La Brea Tar Pits in California to the Mississippi River Valley.
    • Genomic Comparison:
      • The gene-edited pups share 99.5% DNA of gray wolves but differ in the remaining 0.5%, which accounts for the dire wolf traits.
      • These pups are not exact clones of the dire wolf but are considered “dire wolves” based on their physical resemblance.

    Extinct Dire Wolf species returns after 12,500 years

    Technologies Used for Resurrection:

    • Ancient DNA Extraction & Analysis: DNA from 13,000 to 72,000-year-old fossils was sequenced to identify key genetic traits.
    • Gene Editing (CRISPR): Scientists used CRISPR to edit gray wolf DNA, introducing features like size, fur color, and muscular traits to resemble the dire wolf.
    • Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT): Edited somatic cells from gray wolves were used to create embryos implanted in dog surrogates. Genetically modified pups were born after 62 days.
    • Embryo Implantation: The gene-edited embryos developed into the first de-extinct dire wolf pups.
    [UPSC 2018] The term “”sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction”” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:

    (a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.

    (b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.

    (c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.

    (d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.

     

  • First photographic record of Woolly Flying Squirrel captured in Himachal

    Why in the News?

    The Himachal Pradesh Forest Department’s wildlife wing has captured the first photographic evidence of the elusive Woolly Flying Squirrel in the Miyar Valley, Lahaul and Spiti district.

    First photographic record of Woolly Flying Squirrel captured in Himachal

    About the Woolly Flying Squirrel:

    • The Woolly Flying Squirrel, scientifically known as Eupetaurus cinereus, is one of the rarest and least known mammals in Asia.
    • It is endemic to the northwestern Himalayas, primarily found in northern Pakistan and northwestern India.
    • It prefers to live in dry conifer woodlands within a fragmented habitat in a thin elevational band.
    • This species was long believed to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1994, nearly seventy years after its last recorded sighting.
    • It is unique due to its ability to glide, much like other flying squirrels, as it has elastic membranes that connect its fore and hind legs.

    Physical features:

    • Its body is covered with dense, straight, silky hairs, with the dorsal pelage appearing blue-gray, while the underside is pale gray.
    • The squirrel also has creamy white hairs on its throat and ears, and dense black fur on the soles of its feet, with pinkish brown toe pads that are naked.

    Conservation Status:

    • Listed as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List.
    • NOT explicitly mentioned under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

    Significance of the Rediscovery:

    • Its confirmed existence adds to the state’s mammal checklist, offering hope for its continued survival in this remote part of the Himalayas.
    • This discovery is important from a scientific perspective, as it marks the first time the elusive species has been documented in India since its rediscovery in 1994.
    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following:

    1. Black-necked crane 2. Cheetah 3. Flying squirrel 4. Snow leopard

    Which of the above are naturally found in India?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Why Naini Lake is seeing record-low water levels?

    Why in the News?

    Naini Lake, one of Nainital’s key attractions, has recorded a water level of 4.7 feet, marking a 5-year low, sparking concerns about drinking water scarcity as the summer season approaches.

    About Naini Lake

    • Naini Lake is situated in the heart of Nainital, a hill station in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is surrounded by seven hills.
    • The lake is natural kidney-shaped and is one of the main attractions of Nainital.
    • It was discovered by P. Barron, an English businessman, in the mid-19th century, which led to the development of Nainital as a hill station.
    • The deepest point of Naini Lake is 89 feet.
    • The normal gauge level of the lake is 12 feet, and its water level has recently dropped to 4.7 feet, marking a five-year low.

    Why is the Water Level declining?

    • The Uttarakhand Jal Sansthan extracts 10 million litres of water daily from Naini Lake for drinking water supply to the city of Nainital.
    • 76% of the city’s water demand was met by the lake in 2024, but increasing population, tourist activity, and commercialisation have intensified pressure on the lake’s water resources.
    • The lake faces numerous threats, including:
      • Decreased snowfall and rainfall, especially in the winter months.
      • Unplanned construction and encroachments around the lake, leading to the reduction of its catchment area.
      • Pollution due to the discharge of untreated wastewater and improper disposal of solid waste.
    • Siltation caused by debris dumping in Sukhatal Lake, a major aquifer recharge area for Naini Lake, has contributed to the shrinking of the lake’s size.
    • Climate change is affecting the region’s weather patterns, with annual temperatures rising by nearly 1.5 degrees Celsius between 1970 and 2022.

    Other Important Lakes in India (Artificial and Manmade):

    Type Lake Name Location Details
    Natural Dal Lake Jammu & Kashmir Famous for houseboats and scenic beauty, located in Srinagar.
    Vembanad Lake Kerala The longest lake in India, central to Kerala’s backwaters and tourism.
    Sambhar Lake Rajasthan Largest inland saltwater lake, important for bird migration, especially flamingos.
    Manmade Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh A large freshwater lake, critical for bird habitats and a wetland.
    Hussain Sagar Lake Telangana Constructed in 1562, famous for its Buddha statue and as a water source.
    Upper Lake Madhya Pradesh Artificial lake in Bhopal, important for water supply and recreational activities.
    Indira Sagar Lake Madhya Pradesh A large reservoir created by the Indira Sagar Dam for power generation and irrigation.

     

    [UPSC 2018] Which one of the following is an ‘Artificial Lake‘?

    (a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu) (b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh) (c) Nainital (Uttarakhand) (d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)

     

  • What is the Green Credit Programme?

    Why in the News?

    The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.

    About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)

    • The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
    • It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
    • Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
    • These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
    • It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
    • The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.

    Criticisms of the Program:

    • Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
    • Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
    • Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
    • Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

    (a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm

     

  • Over 1,000 species of Fungi threatened with extinction: IUCN

    Why in the News?

    The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List now includes 1,300 fungi species, of which 1000 species are at risk of extinction due to various environmental pressures.

    Important Species under Threat:

    • Fibrous Waxcap (Hygrocybe intermedia): A Vulnerable species of fungi found in Europe, facing threats from habitat loss and land-use changes.
    • 279 Species at Risk: Threatened by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urban development, leading to habitat loss.
    • 91 Species Threatened by Pollution: Nitrogen and ammonia runoff from fertilizers and industrial activities.
    • 50+ Species at Risk Due to Fire Patterns: Changes in fire cycles, especially in USA, making certain fungi species vulnerable in forest ecosystems.

    About Fungi:

    • Fungi belong to the kingdom Fungi, distinct from animals, plants, and bacteria. They are eukaryotic organisms and include moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and mildews.
    • Key Properties:
      • Fungi have chitin in their cell walls and form hyphae that create a mycelium network.
      • They are heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from organic material.
      • They reproduce sexually and asexually through spores.
    • Types of Fungi:
      • Molds: Multicellular, fuzzy fungi.
      • Yeasts: Unicellular fungi used in fermentation.
      • Mushrooms: Fruiting bodies of certain fungi, often edible.
    • Ecological Role: Fungi are crucial in decomposition and nutrient cycling. Some form beneficial relationships with plants (mycorrhizae) to aid in nutrient absorption.
    • Uses:
      • Medicines: Fungi like penicillin have revolutionized medicine.
      • Food: Edible fungi include mushrooms and truffles.
      • Beverages: Yeasts are key in bread, beer, and wine production.
    [UPSC 2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms?​

    1. Cnidarians​

    2. Fungi ​

    3. Protozoa​

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3