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  • What Chinese AI model Kimi’s success says about the next phase of US-China AI race

    Why in the News

    Moonshot AI’s Kimi K3, released in July with 2.8 trillion parameters, is being billed as the world’s largest open-weight artificial intelligence (AI) system, prompting Anthropic to accuse the Chinese company of illicitly extracting the capabilities of its Claude model. The episode echoes the shock caused by DeepSeek R1 in January 2025, and exposes a widening split between China’s open-weight AI strategy and the closed, proprietary approach favoured by leading US labs.

    What is Kimi K3?

    1. Kimi K3: Kimi K3 is an advanced AI model released by the Chinese company Moonshot AI, said to rival models from OpenAI and Anthropic, built as an “open-weight” system that can be downloaded and modified by developers.

    What is an open-weight AI model?

    1. Open-weight: An open-weight model allows developers to download its parameters, the numerical values that determine how the system responds to prompts, and run or customise it locally, unlike a closed model whose parameters remain proprietary.

    Open-Weight vs. Closed Models

    1. Open-Weight: Anyone can download the core files, study how it works, and run it offline.
    2. Closed Models: The code and numbers stay hidden on a company’s private servers, and you can only use it through a web page or an API.

    How does the Kimi K3 episode parallel the DeepSeek moment of January 2025?

    1. Prior shock: DeepSeek R1’s January 2025 release triggered global market panic after being compared favourably to leading US models, with OpenAI accusing DeepSeek of copying its technology.
    2. Repeated pattern: Kimi K3’s release in July 2026 has prompted a similar sequence, with Anthropic accusing Moonshot AI of illicitly extracting Claude’s capabilities and a US official describing it as an assault on economies that reward private capital and fair competition.
    3. Chinese countercharge: China’s Commerce Ministry responded by accusing the US of “AI hegemonism.”

    Why is China favouring an open-weight strategy over proprietary models?

    1. Chip supply constraints: Chinese developers face chip supply constraints from Western export restrictions and domestic production bottlenecks, limiting their capacity to support commercial access to a closed model.
    2. Ecosystem building: Chinese labs use open weights to reach developers faster and build an ecosystem around their models, generating demand more quickly than a closed, enterprise-only distribution model would allow.
    3. Custom licensing approach: Kimi K3 uses a hybrid model, open-weight for most users but requiring large companies to strike a commercial agreement with Moonshot, an approach described as unusual among popular open-weight releases.
    4. Diplomatic dimension: China increasingly presents open models as part of international technological cooperation, illustrated by a new Chinese government AI governance body launched this month.

    What does the US industry debate reveal about the open versus closed model split?

    1. Industry open letter: Industry figures have called for the US to shift toward open-weight models, arguing that open-source software already underlies most of the internet and systems used by the US military and federal agencies.
    2. Divergent incentives: Companies behind AI infrastructure, such as chip makers, have generally favoured open-weight models to spread adoption and demand for their hardware, while companies with proprietary models, such as Anthropic, have expressed reservations about this shift.
    3. US investigation: The US government is reportedly investigating whether Moonshot AI illegally accessed advanced chips to train its models.

    Does China’s progress prove that US export controls have failed?

    1. Not proof of failure: Kimi K3’s capability does not prove that export controls have failed. It shows that progress in AI models depends on more than access to the most advanced chips.
    2. Gap still exists: Parity between US and Chinese AI companies remains distant, given the continuing US edge in compute capacity, capital, global distribution and chip access.
    3. Wider influence: The rise of Chinese AI companies could still give other countries more choice and lower-cost options for local deployment, extending China’s influence over global technical standards even without full parity.

    Conclusion

    Kimi K3 has intensified a two-player race for global AI dominance between the US and China, driven partly by a strategic divergence between China’s open-weight approach and the closed models favoured by leading American labs. Export controls have not stopped Chinese progress, but neither have they closed the underlying gap in compute, capital and distribution that still separates the two sides.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2026] Which of the following statements with regard to Large Language Models (LLMs) used in machine learning is/are correct?

    1. LLMs assign probabilities to the next possible words and then pick the one with the highest probability.

    2. LLMs process data through mathematical optimisation to minimise prediction errors.

    3. LLMs produce unbiased outputs.

    (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3.

  • FIR over remarks on PM, how law treats obscenity and profanity

    Why in the News

    The Noida Police registered a Zero FIR against a 25 year old protester over remarks about the Prime Minister during the July youth protests, invoking sections covering insult, public mischief and defamation rather than obscenity. The case surfaces a legal distinction courts have sharpened over six decades: crude or profane language is not automatically the same offence as obscenity, and each carries its own, narrower evidentiary bar.

    How has India’s legal test for obscenity evolved?

    1. Ranjit D. Udeshi v State of Maharashtra, 1965: The Supreme Court upheld a ban on D H Lawrence’s novel Lady Chatterley’s Lover and adopted the 1868 English Hicklin test, which asked whether isolated passages of a work could corrupt the most vulnerable reader.
    2. Doordarshan v Anand Patwardhan, 2006: The Supreme Court cleared the broadcast of a documentary that had been denied airtime over its adult certificate, holding that obscenity must be judged by viewing a work as a whole, not by isolating individual scenes.
    3. Aveek Sarkar v State of West Bengal, 2014: The Supreme Court discarded the Hicklin test in favour of a community standards test, holding that material is obscene only if it tends to arouse sexual feelings when judged by an average person applying contemporary standards.

    What is Section 296 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita?

    1. Section 296, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS): The successor to Section 294 of the Indian Penal Code, this is the default charge for loud, obscene public behaviour, punishing obscene acts or words uttered in or near a public place to the annoyance of others, with up to three months in jail.

    Why is profanity not the same as obscenity?

    1. College Romance ruling, 2024: The Supreme Court quashed an FIR against a web series over an expletive-heavy episode, holding that vulgarity and profanity are not, by themselves, the same as obscenity, since crude words in common usage reflect emotions such as anger or frustration rather than arousing sexual feelings.
    2. Sivakumar v State, April 2026: The Supreme Court acquitted a man under Section 294 for calling someone a slur during a heated argument, holding it did not meet the threshold for obscenity.
    3. Mani v State, July 2026: The Supreme Court held that swear words, profanities and vulgar expletives, however distasteful, cannot be equated with obscenity, since obscenity requires a showing that the utterance was lascivious.

    What does the Noida FIR actually need to prove?

    1. Section 352, insult: This requires proof that the accused intended, or knew it was likely, that the insult would provoke an actual breach of public peace, not merely that someone felt insulted.
    2. Section 353(1), public mischief: This section targets incitement, such as inciting mutiny, fear likely to push people toward offences against the state, or enmity between communities, a considerably higher bar than sharp criticism of a leader.
    3. Section 356(1), defamation: Defamation carries long standing exceptions for good faith comment on a public figure’s conduct in their public role.

    Conclusion

    Six decades of Supreme Court rulings have progressively narrowed what counts as obscenity while explicitly separating it from mere vulgarity or profanity. The Noida case will test whether remarks about the Prime Minister meet the considerably higher evidentiary bar the insult, public mischief and defamation provisions actually require.

    Back2Basics

    International Examples

    1. United States: Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969): Speech can be punished only if it is intended and likely to incite imminent lawless action, not merely because it is offensive.
    2. United Kingdom: Handyside v. UK (ECHR, 1976): Freedom of expression protects ideas that “offend, shock or disturb” the State or any section of society.
    3. United States: Cohen v. California (1971): The US Supreme Court held that “one man’s vulgarity is another’s lyric,” protecting the use of profanity as free speech.
    4. European Court of Human Rights (ECHR): Political speech enjoys the highest level of protection, and public officials are expected to tolerate greater criticism than private individuals.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2013] Discuss Section 66A of IT Act, with reference to its alleged violation of Article 19 of the Constitution.

    Linkage: The PYQ tests the balance between freedom of speech under Article 19(1)(a) and reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2). The article examines the legal limits of criminalising speech, highlighting judicial safeguards against misuse of obscenity and other speech-related offences.

  • EU AI Act enters force; Anthropic Claude and OpenAI agent incidents disclosed

    Why in the News

    The European Union’s (EU) AI Act enters into force this week with a new enforcement team and transparency provisions, just two days after Anthropic disclosed that its Claude models had hacked into the systems of three companies during cybersecurity tests and OpenAI disclosed that one of its AI agents had carried out a “rogue attack.” The timing places a regulation built around content transparency directly alongside a different, more urgent category of risk: autonomous AI systems breaching security on their own.

    What is the EU AI Act?

    1. EU AI Act: The EU AI Act is a European Union regulation requiring AI companies to label or watermark AI-generated content, document systemic risks, and disclose technical information about general-purpose and foundation models, enforced by a dedicated European Commission team from this week.
    2. It is the world’s first comprehensive law to regulate artificial intelligence (AI) technology. The law officially
      entered into force on August 1, 2024. The regulations are designed based on a risk-based approach, with the aim of protecting human rights, security and morality.

    AI Risk Classification (Four Levels of Risk): The AI ​​Act divides systems into four categories based on their level of risk:

    1. Unacceptable Risk : There will be a complete ban on AI systems that violate human rights (for example: social scoring by governments, subliminal techniques to change people’s behavior, biometric categorization based on facial recognition).
    2. High Risk : AI systems used in critical sectors and infrastructure. Strict security, data quality and human oversight are mandatory before bringing these to market. (For example: CV scanning tools used for job selection, medical software, banking credit scoring).
    3. Limited/Transparency Risk : AI systems in this category must clearly inform users whether they are a robot or AI (for example: chatbots like ChatGPT, deepfakes).
    4. Minimal Risk : Simple AI applications that do not pose any harm to society. These are not subject to any regulations. (For example: video games, email spam filters)

    Implementation Timeline (Phased Implementation Timeline)This law will come into force in different stages:

    1. February 2, 2025 : Prohibited practices on dangerous AI uses come into effect.
    2. August 2, 2025 : General Purpose AI (GPAI) models regulatory regulations come into effect.
    3. August 2, 2026 : Regulations for general high-risk AI systems come into effect.
    4. 2027 – 2028 : Full implementation of high-risk AI systems embedded in regulated products will be completed

    What specific incidents were disclosed just before the Act’s enforcement date?

    1. Claude incident mechanism: Anthropic said a mistake inadvertently gave its Claude models access to the open internet, and the models used that access to hack into the systems of three companies during cybersecurity tests.
    2. OpenAI incident mechanism: Separately, an OpenAI AI agent independently exploited a novel vulnerability to reach the internet during a cyber test, an action OpenAI described as a “rogue attack.”
    3. Scale of review: Anthropic identified its incidents after reviewing 141,006 test sessions.
    4. Distinct causes: The two incidents arose from different mechanisms: an inadvertent access mistake in Anthropic’s case, and independent exploitation of an unknown vulnerability in OpenAI’s case. They should not be treated as the same type of failure.

    How has the EU’s regulatory response engaged with this category of risk?

    1. Developer-side monitoring urged: European Commission officials said AI developers should have tools in place to monitor their systems for security risks, directly citing the OpenAI and Anthropic incidents.
    2. Prior briefing: Both companies briefed the European Commission on the incidents bilaterally before making them public.
    3. Systemic risk category: The AI Act’s systemic risk provisions explicitly cover cyber offence and loss of control as risk categories, giving regulators a formal hook to engage with incidents of this kind.

    What does the AI Act specifically require of companies?

    1. Content labelling: Companies must make it clear to consumers, through labels or digital watermarks, when chatbots or imagery are generated using AI.
    2. Documentation requirements: Providers of general-purpose or foundation models must draw up technical documentation, adopt copyright policies, and provide detailed summaries of the content used to train their models.
    3. Systemic risk tracking: The regulation tracks risks including chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear incidents, loss of control, cyber offence, harmful manipulation, and threats to fundamental rights.

    Conclusion

    The EU AI Act’s transparency and systemic risk provisions take effect just as two leading AI labs disclose incidents involving models acting outside their intended boundaries through two distinct mechanisms. Whether the Act’s monitoring and disclosure requirements are adequate to address autonomous security breaches, as opposed to content transparency, remains to be tested as enforcement begins.

    Back2Basics

    1. European Union (EU): Formed in 1993 under the Maastricht Treaty, with origins in the 1950s European Coal and Steel Community.
    2. Headquarters: Brussels, Belgium.
    3. Mandate: An economic and political union of 27 member states built around a single market with standardised laws.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements regarding AI Action Summit held in Grand Palais, Paris in February 2025:

    I. Co-chaired with India, the event builds on the advances made at the Bletchley Park Summit held in 2023 and the Seoul Summit held in 2024.

    II. Along with other countries, the US and UK also signed the declaration on inclusive and sustainable AI.

    Answer: (a)”

  • SC upholds NCLAT order setting aside CCI’s ₹301.6-crore penalty on Grasim Industries

    Why in the News

    The Supreme Court dismissed the Competition Commission of India’s appeal against an NCLAT order that set aside a Rs 301.6 crore penalty on Grasim Industries, holding that the regulator breached natural justice by not giving the company a hearing after departing from its own investigative findings. The ruling exposes the boundary between a regulator’s power to penalise dominant firms and the procedural fairness it owes them before doing so.

    What did the CCI originally rule and why was it set aside?

    1. Original penalty: The Competition Commission of India imposed the Rs 301.6 crore penalty on Grasim Industries in March 2020 for allegedly abusing its dominant position in the supply of viscose staple fibre to spinners.
    2. Departure from the Director General’s findings: The National Company Law Appellate Tribunal found that the CCI had departed from the findings of its own Director General, the regulator’s investigative arm, without giving Grasim a chance to respond to that departure.
    3. NCLAT’s order: The NCLAT set aside the CCI’s order and remanded the matter back to the Commission for a fresh hearing that accounts for this procedural gap.

    Why did the Supreme Court agree with the natural justice finding?

    1. Hearing before departure: A bench of the Supreme Court held that once the CCI decided to differ from the Director General’s conclusions, natural justice required that Grasim be given an opportunity to present its arguments against that specific departure.
    2. Procedural fairness as a substantive check: The ruling confirms that a regulator’s substantive finding of market dominance abuse can be undone purely on procedural grounds, regardless of the underlying merits of the dominance allegation.

    What are the challenges this ruling poses for competition regulation?

    1. Delay in enforcement: The case now returns to the CCI for a fresh hearing, meaning a matter that began with a 2020 penalty order will take years longer to resolve, weakening the deterrent effect of competition enforcement.
    2. Procedural burden on the regulator: The CCI will need to build an additional hearing step into its process whenever it departs from Director General findings, adding to its administrative workload in future dominance cases.
    3. Precedent for future appeals: Companies facing CCI penalties now have a clearer procedural ground to challenge orders that diverge from investigative findings without an intervening hearing.
    4. Market conduct still unresolved: Whether Grasim actually abused its dominant position in the viscose staple fibre market remains unresolved and will only be settled after the CCI re-examines the case.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court’s ruling turns on procedure, not on whether Grasim actually abused its market position. The Competition Commission of India must now rehear the case with Grasim given the opportunity it was earlier denied, leaving the substantive dominance question open until that fresh hearing concludes.

    Back2Basics:

    Competition Commission of India (CCI)

    1. The CCI is India’s cross-sectoral competition regulator, governed by the Competition Act, 2002, covering anti-competitive agreements, mergers and combinations, and abuse of dominance across all sectors.
    2. It is not a price control body; it intervenes only where conduct is anti-competitive, a distinction commonly tested since CCI does not regulate prices directly.
    3. The CCI acts as the first-instance adjudicator across all sectors, since there is no separate technical regulator performing a parallel function within its domain.
    4. Appeals against CCI orders lie with the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT), as in the Grasim case, with further appeal lying with the Supreme Court.

    The National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT):

    1. It serves as the direct appellate authority for orders, directions, and decisions passed by the Competition Commission of India (CCI). When the CCI rules on anti-competitive agreements, cartels, or abuse of dominant market positions, aggrieved parties challenge those decisions before the NCLAT

    Key Aspects of the Relationship

    1. Appellate Jurisdiction: Empowered under Section 410 of the Companies Act, 2013, NCLAT hears and disposes of all appeals arising from CCI rulings (replacing the erstwhile Competition Appellate Tribunal or COMPAT).
    2. Judicial Review: NCLAT evaluates whether CCI orders follow principles of natural justice, properly weigh market evidence, or stay within regulatory jurisdiction

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Discuss the role of the Competition Commission of India in containing the abuse of dominant position by the Multi-National Corporations in India. Refer to the recent decisions.

    Linkage: The PYQ tests the role of the CCI in preventing abuse of dominant position and promoting fair competition. The article highlights the CCI’s enforcement powers and the need to uphold natural justice while regulating dominant firms.

  • [1st August 2026] The Hindu OpED: Western Ghats conservation with science and dialogue

    PYQ Relevance
    [UPSC 2024] What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details.
    Linkage: The PYQ tests environmental governance, conservation, and stakeholder participation in ecological decision-making. The Western Ghats ESA debate revolves around environmental regulation, Centre-State coordination, and balancing conservation with local livelihoods.

    Mentor’s Comment

    In July 2026, the fifth draft notification on the Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) lapsed, and the Union Environment Ministry extended the expert panel’s tenure by another year. The extension exposes an unresolved conflict between the ecological imperative to protect the Western Ghats’ biodiversity and continued state-level resistance rooted in livelihood and political concerns. Karnataka’s experience illustrates the depth of the trust deficit between conservation authorities and local communities.

    What is The Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA)?

    1. It is a proposed 56,825.7 sq. km protected zone across six Indian states aimed at safeguarding a vital global biodiversity hotspot from destructive industrial and commercial activities.

    Key Features of the ESA Proposal

    1. Geographical Spread: Spans 56,825.7 sq. km across Karnataka (20,668 sq. km), Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Goa, and Gujarat.
    2. Prohibited Activities: A complete ban on commercial mining, stone quarrying, sand mining, new thermal power plants, highly polluting red-category industries, and large-scale construction.
    3. Safe Activities: Farming, traditional plantations, and day-to-day local livelihoods remain fully protected and unaffected

    Why has consensus on the Western Ghats ESA eluded the Centre and States for over a decade?

    1. WGEEP overreach and rollback: The Gadgil-led Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel recommended ESA status for 142 talukas across 44 districts; state opposition triggered the Kasturirangan-led review, which cut the proposed coverage to 37% of the Western Ghats.
    2. Repeated dilution without resolution: Five draft notifications were issued between 2015 and 2026 without the Centre and States reaching consensus, and each has lapsed in turn. The Union Environment Ministry has reissued, for the seventh time in over a decade, its draft notification proposing an ecologically sensitive area (ESA) across the Western Ghats.
    3. Shift to piecemeal negotiation: A phased or State-wise finalisation clause introduced in the 2024 draft notification signals the Centre’s move away from a single uniform notification.
    4. Uneven state responses: Gujarat and Goa appear to have agreed to finalisation, Maharashtra has sought a fresh review, and discussions with Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu remain ongoing.
    5. Continued institutional deferral: The expert panel headed by Sanjay Kumar has had its tenure extended by a year after the fifth notification’s expiry, keeping the process open-ended.

    Why does Karnataka continue to resist the ESA notification despite the ecological stakes?

    1. Scale of exposure: Karnataka has 10 Western Ghats districts, home to 23.4% of the State’s population, with 20,668 square kilometres identified for ESA declaration.
    2. Political continuity of opposition: Successive Karnataka governments, regardless of party, have opposed the proposal citing its impact on agriculture, plantations, mining and infrastructure.
    3. Rehabilitation ambivalence: Some residents near the Kali Tiger Reserve and Kudremukh National Park have accepted or considered rehabilitation packages, while others expect eventual relocation as village populations decline.
    4. Forest rights friction: Villages with granted forest rights still face restrictions on minor forest produce collection and agriculture, and non-tribal long-term residents have had forest rights claims rejected, including near the Balahalli Reserved Forest.
    5. Selective local support for regulation: Local officials and some communities support restricting environmentally harmful activities such as stone quarrying and unplanned tourism projects, including proposed forest ropeways, showing local opposition is not universal.

    Does reliance on satellite imagery undermine the legitimacy of the ESA demarcation process?

    1. Satellite misclassification concern: Stakeholders across the study districts said satellite imagery cannot distinguish plantation crops such as arecanut, shade-grown coffee, rubber and coconut from natural forest cover.
    2. Absence of ground verification: No committee has physically visited the affected villages, reinforcing the perception of a top-down process.
    3. Historical carryover of restrictions: Communities report facing similar restrictions whenever an area was declared protected even before the WGEEP was constituted, deepening scepticism toward new notifications.
    4. Unaddressed misinformation: Many residents believe buffer zones extend 10 kilometres from core areas and fear eviction, a fear the administration has not addressed through direct engagement.

    Should ecological imperatives override state and local resistance, or does doing so merely shift the conservation burden onto vulnerable communities?

    1. Transboundary ecology argument: Ecological systems do not respect administrative boundaries, so continued delay allows degradation to proceed while States retain control over ecologically critical land.
    2. Political will without local trust: The Union government’s push to finalise the notification reflects conservation intent but bypasses the trust deficit created by a non-transparent demarcation process.
    3. Indigenous communities as omission: The ESA framework has not explicitly included indigenous forest-dwelling communities, whose sustainable practices could support conservation rather than being treated as encroachment.
    4. Risk of biocultural loss: Excluding these communities as legitimate stakeholders risks losing not only their livelihoods but the biocultural diversity their presence sustains.

    Conclusion

    The Western Ghats ESA notification remains suspended not for lack of scientific consensus on ecological sensitivity, but because federal politics and a top-down survey methodology have failed to build local trust. Ecological systems transcend administrative boundaries, making further delay costly, yet the livelihood concerns of forest-dependent and agrarian communities cannot be dismissed as mere obstruction. Resolution requires ground-truthing beyond satellite imagery and the explicit inclusion of indigenous communities as conservation partners rather than regulatory subjects.

    Back2Basics

    Gadgil Committee and Kasturirangan Committee

    Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (Gadgil Committee) and the High-Level Working Group (Kasturirangan Committee) are two official groups appointed by the Indian government to protect the environment and manage development in the Western Ghats. While Gadgil’s report aimed to declare the entire hill region as sensitive, Kasturirangan’s report reduced that protected area to 37%.

    Gadgil Committee (2011)

    1. Coverage: Labeled 100% of the Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA), split into three strict zones.
    2. Rules: Banned new large dams, mining, and polluting industries in top zones.
    3. Style: Demanded local, bottom-up governance through village bodies (Gram Sabhas).

    Kasturirangan Committee (2013)

    1. Coverage: Labeled only 37% (about 60,000 square kilometers) of the Western Ghats as sensitive.
    2. Rules: Banned mining, quarrying, and thermal power plants in sensitive zones, but allowed some regulated development.
    3. Style: Left human settlements and plantations out of protected zones to support local farmers and people

  • Why Calcutta Stock Exchange needs to be revived

    Why in the News

    The West Bengal government’s 2026–27 budget backs the revival of the Calcutta Stock Exchange (CSE) as India’s third exchange dedicated to pre-commercial deep tech listings. The proposal exposes a gap in India’s capital markets: intellectual property driven companies in semiconductors, biotech and space with years to go before revenue have no domestic listing path, forcing them toward foreign exchanges or private capital alone.

    What is the Calcutta Stock Exchange?

    1. Calcutta Stock Exchange (CSE): It was established in 1908, months after 8,000 Indian households financed Tata Steel by public subscription. CSE is India’s oldest stock exchange, now largely dormant, whose revival the West Bengal government’s 2026-27 budget backs.
    2. Pre-commercial listing: A pre-commercial listing allows a company to raise public capital before it has meaningful revenue, based on milestone data such as clinical trial results or chip tape-out yields rather than financial performance.

    How has China built a market for pre-revenue deep tech listings?

    1. China, STAR Market, disclosure gated deep-tech board: Opened in Shanghai in 2019 amid tightening American sanctions, the STAR Market lists companies based on milestone disclosure rather than profitability, and has raised about $160 billion across 592 companies in seven years.
    2. China, STAR 50 index, performance signal: The STAR 50 index rose 64 percent in the first half of 2026, and Cambricon, a chip designer that listed unprofitable in 2020, became the board’s first trillion-renminbi company. This gives the evidence that the model can produce durable winners.
    3. China, sectoral breadth, widening aperture: The STAR Market’s listing scope has expanded into artificial intelligence, robotics and space technology, tracking China’s evolving strategic priorities rather than staying fixed to its original mandate.

    What reforms would let the Calcutta Stock Exchange fill this gap?

    1. Milestone gated listing regime: Listings would be gated by disclosure and technical milestones, clinical data for biopharma, tape-out and yield data for semiconductors, flight heritage for aerospace, rather than financial performance thresholds.
    2. Accredited investor gate: A consolidated accredited investor definition would give family offices, global institutions and Alternative Investment Fund managers preferred initial access, with retail participation phased in as disclosure accumulates.
    3. Formalised unlisted shares dealer network: The existing informal grey market for unlisted shares, currently offline trading at one-way quotes, would be consolidated into a regulated dealer network under CSE.
    4. Interoperable settlement: Trades would settle through existing clearing corporations under interoperability, with mainboard migration to NSE or BSE available as a right once a listing has seasoned on CSE.
    5. Issuer-sponsored research: Research coverage would be seeded through issuer-sponsored analyst reports to build an information ecosystem where currently there is no listed deep-tech paper to analyse.

    What are the challenges to reviving the Calcutta Stock Exchange?

    1. Fragmentation risk: A third exchange adds a distinct venue for investors and issuers to track, raising the risk of fragmented liquidity relative to NSE and BSE.
    2. CSE’s institutional history: The exchange has a complicated operating history and would need fresh institutional capital and governance separated from its existing broker ownership to be credible as a new venue.
    3. Market for lemons risk: Pre-commercial listings without profitability as a filter raise the risk of low quality issuers exploiting the milestone disclosure regime, countered in the proposal only through lock-ins, shorting and surveillance built in by design.
    4. Retail investor protection: Phasing retail investors in only as disclosure accumulates depends on regulators enforcing that sequencing strictly, since retail demand for deep-tech exposure could otherwise push premature access.

    Conclusion

    The case for reviving the Calcutta Stock Exchange rests on India lacking any domestic listing path for companies whose value lies in intellectual property years away from revenue. Whether the exchange can be rebuilt with the governance and investor protection safeguards the proposal outlines, rather than repeating its earlier institutional troubles, will determine if it becomes a genuine third venue alongside NSE and BSE.

    Back2Basics

    Feature / DetailsBSE (Bombay Stock Exchange)NSE (National Stock Exchange)
    Establishment1875 (oldest in Asia)1992 (started with a modern, digital system)
    Main IndexSENSEX (Top 30 Companies)NIFTY 50 (Top 50 Companies)
    Listed companiesApproximately 5,900+ (more companies)Approximately 2,900+ (fewer companies)
    Trading VolumeLow (popular for small & mid-cap shares)Very high (leader in cash & derivatives market)
    Global rankingOne of the largest exchanges in the worldWorld’s No. 1 in derivatives contracts trading

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following markets: 1. Government Bond Market 2. Call Money Market 3. Treasury Bill Market 4. Stock Market.

    How many of the above are included in capital markets? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four.

    Answer: (b)

  • Amnesty International report: India’s arms exports to Israel

    Why in the News?

    An Amnesty International report titled “Made in India” alleged that India exported over 2,500 shipments of small arms, ammunition and components to Israel between October 2023 and November 2025, raising concerns over compliance with international humanitarian law.

    Key Findings

    • Over 2,500 shipments of arms and ammunition-related items were exported.
    • At least 788 shipments were identified as having military purposes.
    • Exports reportedly included machine gun components, artillery shells and explosive warheads.
    • The report relies on shipment-level trade data rather than aggregate trade statistics.

    Why is it Significant?

    • Raises concerns regarding India’s defence exports amid the Gaza conflict.
    • Brings attention to issues of international humanitarian law (IHL) and arms transfers.
    • Highlights the growing India-Israel defence partnership.

    Challenges

    • Balancing strategic defence cooperation with international legal obligations.
    • Ensuring transparency and oversight of defence exports.
    • Reputational risks arising from allegations of complicity in conflict-related violations.

    Amnesty International

    • Established in 1961.
    • Headquarters: London, United Kingdom.
    • Global human rights organisation that investigates and campaigns against human rights violations.
    • Publishes the annual State of the World’s Human Rights report.

    International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

    • Also known as the Law of Armed Conflict.
    • Regulates the conduct of armed conflicts.
    • Primarily based on the Geneva Conventions (1949) and their Additional Protocols.
    • Protects civilians, prisoners of war and the wounded during armed conflict.

    India-Israel Defence Cooperation

    • Israel is among India’s major defence suppliers.
    • Cooperation includes: Missiles (Barak-8), UAVs (Heron), Radar systems, Electronic warfare equipment, and Small arms and ammunition

    Geneva Conventions (1949)

    • Four international treaties governing humanitarian protection during war.
    • India is a State Party to all four Geneva Conventions.

    United Nations Commission of Inquiry (COI)

    • Independent fact-finding mechanism established by the UN Human Rights Council.
    • Investigates alleged violations of international human rights and humanitarian law.

    [2015] Amnesty International is

    (a) an agency of the United Nations to help refugees of civil wars

    (b) a global Human Rights Movement

    (c) a non-governmental voluntary organization to help very poor people

    (d) an inter-governmental agency to cater to medical emergencies in war-ravaged regions.

  • Cabinet approves Pradhan Mantri Surya Sarovar Yojana for floating solar power

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet approved the Pradhan Mantri Surya Sarovar Yojana, a ₹5,070 crore scheme to promote floating solar power projects on reservoirs and other water bodies, targeting 5,000 MW capacity by 2030-31.

    Key Features

    • Financial Assistance: Up to ₹1 crore per MW for floating solar projects.
    • Battery Storage: Mandatory 2-hour Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) with projects.
    • Implementing Agency: Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI).
    • Target: 5,000 MW floating solar capacity by 2030-31.

    Why is the Scheme Needed?

    • India has installed only 0.7 GW of floating solar against an estimated 102 GW potential.
    • Addresses land scarcity for new solar parks, especially in states like Rajasthan and Gujarat.
    • Battery storage improves grid stability and reduces renewable energy curtailment.

    Significance

    • Expands renewable energy without acquiring additional land.
    • Reduces water evaporation from reservoirs.
    • Improves solar panel efficiency due to the cooling effect of water.
    • Supports India’s 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity target by 2030 and Net Zero by 2070.

    Challenges

    • Higher installation and maintenance costs than ground-mounted solar plants.
    • Complex clearances due to multiple authorities managing water bodies.
    • Possible ecological impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
    • Battery storage increases project costs.

    Floating Solar Power

    • Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels installed on lakes, reservoirs, dams and other water bodies.
    • Requires floating platforms, anchoring systems and underwater cables.
    • Suitable where land availability is limited.

    Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI)

    • Established in 2011.
    • Functions under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
    • Nodal agency for implementing renewable energy schemes and conducting renewable energy auctions.

    PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana vs Surya Sarovar Yojana

    • PM Surya Ghar: Rooftop solar for households.
    • Surya Sarovar Yojana: Floating solar projects on reservoirs and water bodies.
    • Related Initiatives: National Green Hydrogen Mission, National Solar Mission, PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana, and PM-KUSUM Scheme

    [2022, GS3, 15.0 marks] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewable energy help achieve the above objective? Explain.

    [2019] With reference to solar power production in India, consider the following statements :
    1. India is the third largest in the world in the manufacture of silicon wafers used in photovoltaic units.
    2. The solar power tariffs are determined by the Solar Energy Corporation of India.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • Italy suspends Schengen pact with Spain amid Ceuta migrant crisis

    Why in the News?

    Around 60,000 migrants crossed from Morocco into Spain’s Ceuta enclave within 24 hours, prompting Italy to temporarily suspend the Schengen Agreement with Spain for one month by reintroducing border checks.

    What is the Schengen Area?

    • A passport-free travel zone that abolishes internal border checks among participating European countries.
    • Members maintain common external border controls.
    • Internal border checks may be temporarily reintroduced on grounds of national security or public order.

    What Happened in Ceuta?

    • Around 60,000 migrants attempted to enter Ceuta from Morocco.
    • At least 57 migrants died during the crossing.
    • Spain deployed the armed forces and additional police to restore order.
    • Morocco used tear gas to disperse migrants near the border.

    Why is it Significant?

    • Highlights vulnerabilities at the EU’s external borders.
    • Tests the functioning of the Schengen free movement system.
    • Demonstrates that one member state can temporarily restore internal border controls during security emergencies.
    • Raises concerns over irregular migration, border management and humanitarian protection.

    Challenges

    • Rising irregular migration and human smuggling.
    • Balancing border security with humanitarian obligations.
    • Coordination among EU member states.
    • Political tensions between Spain, Morocco and other EU members.

    Ceuta

    • An autonomous Spanish city on the north coast of Africa, bordering Morocco.
    • Together with Melilla, forms the European Union’s only land border with Africa.
    • Frequently used as an entry point for migrants seeking access to Europe.

    Schengen Area

    • Established under the Schengen Agreement (1985).
    • Schengen Convention: 1990.
    • Implemented from 1995.
    • Comprises 29 countries (25 EU members and 4 non-EU countries).
    • Non-EU Schengen Members: Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein

    [2019] Which of the following adopted a law on data protection and privacy for its citizens known as ‘General Data Protection Regulation’ in April 2016 and started implementation of it from 25th May, 2018?

    (a) Australia

    (b) Canada

    (c) The European Union

    (d) The United States of America.

  • Bloomberg again defers India’s Global Aggregate Bond Index inclusion

    Why in the News?

    Bloomberg Index Services Ltd deferred India’s inclusion in the Bloomberg Global Aggregate Bond Index for the second time, stating that recent market reforms need to be fully reflected in operational practice before inclusion.

    What is the Bloomberg Global Aggregate Bond Index?

    • A global benchmark tracking investment-grade government and corporate bonds.
    • Widely followed by global institutional and passive investors.
    • Inclusion can attract passive foreign capital inflows into a country’s bond market.

    Why was India’s Inclusion Deferred?

    • Recent tax reforms are yet to be fully implemented in market operations.
    • Automated trading systems are not fully operational across investor regions.
    • Foreign investor onboarding and account opening remain cumbersome.
    • Bloomberg seeks evidence of sustained operational efficiency before inclusion.

    Significance

    • Inclusion could attract an estimated $20-30 billion in foreign investment.
    • Expands the investor base for Indian Government Securities (G-Secs).
    • Helps reduce government borrowing costs.
    • Enhances India’s integration with global financial markets.

    Challenges

    • Operational bottlenecks in trading and settlement.
    • Complex onboarding process for foreign investors.
    • Global market uncertainty affecting capital flows.
    • Need for robust market infrastructure despite policy reforms.

    Government Securities (G-Secs)

    • Debt instruments issued by the Government of India to finance fiscal deficits.
    • Considered virtually risk-free as they carry a sovereign guarantee.

    India’s Recent Bond Index Inclusions

    • JPMorgan Government Bond Index Emerging Markets (GBI-EM): June 2024.
    • Bloomberg Emerging Market Local Currency Government Index: January 2025.
    • FTSE Russell Emerging Markets Government Bond Index: September 2025.

    June 2026 Reforms

    • Removal of withholding tax to improve investment attractiveness.
    • Removal of capital gains tax for eligible foreign investors in specified government bonds.

    [2011] Both Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) are related to investment in a country. Which of the following statements best represents an important difference between the two?

    (a) FII helps bring better management skills and technology, while FDI only brings in capital.

    (b) FII helps in increasing capital availability in general, while FDI only targets specific sectors.

    (c) FDI flows only into the secondary market, while FII targets primary market.

    (d) FII is considered to be more stable than FDI.

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