GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Why in the News?

A set of copper plates from the early 15th Century, dating back to the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty, were recently unveiled by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Key Features of the Copper Plates

• These plates are unique, dating back to the coronation of King Devaraya I of the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • The king granted the village of Gudipalli, along with the hamlets Rajendramada and Udayapalli, during his coronation.
  • The village was renamed Devarayapura-agrahara and divided into 61 shares allocated to various Brahmins with expertise in Vedas and Shastras.
• They are written in Sanskrit, Kannada and Nagari characters.
• The seal features an image of Vamana, rather than the usual Varaha (boar), which is the royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Historical Significance:

• Dated to Saka 1328 (November 5, 1406 CE), the plates provide insights into the Sangama Dynasty.
• It helps trace the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to the five sons of King Harihara: Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.

Why in the News?

Since February 2025, Buddhists across India have been protesting, demanding the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949.

About the Mahabodhi Temple:

Why in the News?

On April 1, 2025, tribals in Jharkhand and the larger Chhotanagpur region will celebrate Sarhul, marking both the New Year and the arrival of spring.

About Sarhul Festival

• Sarhul is a significant Adivasi festival celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region, covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Bihar.
• It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra, typically three days after the appearance of the new moon.
  • It marks the new year and celebrates the arrival of spring.
• It is celebrated by various tribes, including Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each with its own unique customs.
• The Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is venerated as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity who protects the village from natural calamities and misfortunes.
• The festival symbolizes the union of the Sun and Earth.
  • The pahan (male priest) represents the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, symbolizes the Earth. This union is essential for sustaining life, emphasizing the connection between sunlight and soil.
• It also marks the renewal of life.
• After the rituals, Adivasis begin ploughing their fields, sowing crops, or gathering produce from the forest.

Cultural Significance of Sarhul

• Sarhul evolved from a hunting festival to one that celebrates agriculture, reflecting the changing lifestyle of the Adivasi communities.
• Sarhul is a cultural movement to preserve Adivasi heritage amidst urbanization and modernization, helping reinforce tribal identity.
• Over time, Sarhul has become a platform for Adivasi political assertion, with some groups using the festival to demand the recognition of Sarna religion and its inclusion in India’s caste census.
• Sarhul has also become a means for advocating tribal rights and social justice, particularly through the leadership of Baba Karthik Oraon.

Why in the News?

A recent statement by an MP in Parliament labelling Rajput ruler Rana Sanga a “traitor,” has sparked controversy over his role in inviting Babur to invade India.

Who was Rana Sanga?

• Rana Sanga, also known as Maharana Sangram Singh, was a Rajput king who ruled the kingdom of Mewar in present-day Rajasthan from 1509 to 1527.
• He expanded his kingdom significantly, conquering parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, and Sindh.
• He formed a powerful Rajput confederacy and led a massive army of 80,000 warhorses and 500 elephants.
• He was known for his military campaigns against the Lodi dynasty of Delhi, the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat, and even the Mughals.
• His most notable victories include the Battle of Gagron against Sultan Mahmud Khilji of Malwa and the Battle of Dholpur in 1519 against Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi.
• Battle with Babur:
  • Rana Sanga eventually came into conflict with Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire.
  • The two fought in the Battle of Khanwa in 1527, where Babur’s forces defeated Sanga’s Rajput army.
  • This marked the end of Rajput resistance to the Mughals in Northern India.
• Legacy:
  • Despite his defeat at Khanwa, he is remembered as a hero of Rajput resistance and is considered one of the last independent Hindu rulers in Northern India before the rise of Mughal dominance.

Recent Controversy:

• The remarks were made amid growing debates about Medieval Indian history, particularly surrounding Aurangzeb and the role of various historical figures in Indian politics.
• Historians are divided on whether Rana Sanga explicitly invited Babur to invade India.
• Babur’s memoirs, the Baburnama, mention that Rana Sanga offered assistance against Ibrahim Lodi.
• Yet, historians like Satish Chandra propose that Rana Sanga might have viewed Babur as a means to weaken the Lodi Sultanate, possibly underestimating Babur’s intentions to establish his own rule in India.
• Some argue that Rana Sanga might have seen Babur as a useful ally against Ibrahim Lodi, while others believe his role was exaggerated by Babur in his memoir, the Baburnama.

Why in the News?

A decade after the resurgence of Nalanda University, the Government of Bihar is now focusing on the revival of Vikramshila University.

About Vikramshila University

• Vikramshila University was founded by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty in the 8th-9th century AD in Bhagalpur district, Bihar, near the Ganges River.
• It was established to address the decline in academic standards at Nalanda University.
• The university specialized in Tantric Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Subjects taught included philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, logic, and tantras.
• Notable scholars like Atisa Dipankara and Naropa were associated with Vikramshila.
• It housed over 1,000 students and employed more than 100 teachers.
  • The university had 208 monastic cells, where monks studied and meditated.
• Administration was managed by a Kulpati, or Mahasthavir, overseeing both academics and operations.
• Key Features:
  • The university’s iconic cruciform brick stupa stood at 15 meters.
  • It also had a library with a unique cooling system to preserve manuscripts.
  • The architecture included a square layout with gates at four cardinal directions and surrounding votive stupas.
• Decline and Destruction:
  • It thrived for about 400 years before being destroyed by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1193 AD.
  • The decline was due to the rise of Hinduism, the fall of Buddhism, and foreign invasions.

Cultural Significance of Vikramshila University

• Vikramshila was a major centre for Tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism, focusing on esoteric practices and rituals.
• The Cakrasamvara Tantra was developed here, with scholars like Buddhajnanapada contributing to its spread.
• The teachings from Vikramshila spread Buddhism across the Himalayas, Central Asia, and the Far East.
• Vikramshila represented the zenith of Buddhist scholarship in India and contributed significantly to Buddhist texts, some of which survived through Tibetan manuscripts.

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in ‘The Hindu’.

About Lapis Lazuli

• Lapis lazuli is a deep-blue metamorphic rock prized for its vibrant colour, often used in jewellery and decorative items.
• It is composed mainly of lazurite, with other minerals like calcite and pyrite, which give it its characteristic golden specks.
• It is mainly found in Afghanistan’s Badakhshan province, though it is also present in Chile, Russia, and the US.
• It has been valued since ancient times, particularly in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, and is known for its use in making pigments, especially ultramarine.

Lapis Lazuli in Indus Valley Civilization (IVC):

• The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (3300-1900 BC) had extensive trade with Mesopotamia and Afghanistan, where lapis lazuli was imported.
• It was used for beads and ornaments found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, underscoring its value in Indus jewellery.
• It was a sacred stone, often used in beads, pendants, and amulets, symbolizing spirituality and high social status.
• It was likely associated with religious ceremonies and used to represent the gods.
• The Indus people were skilled at bead-making, often combining lapis lazuli with other stones, such as gold.
• The intricate designs, including incised or painted beads, reflect their technical expertise.

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt and extension of the original article published in the Indian Express.

Rise in Mercantile Activities and Evolution of Pottery Styles:

• The Vedic period saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW), often linked with the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
• With the rise of Buddhism, Jainism, and urbanization, NBPW emerged during the Mahajanapada period.
• Glazed porcelain was introduced around 1000 AD through trade with China and Muslim traders, significantly influencing India’s pottery tradition.

How Pots are integral to understanding Culture?

• Material Culture: Pottery is a direct reflection of daily life and technological expertise. It reveals how ancient societies lived, worked, and expressed their culture through artistic and functional objects.
• Socio-Economic Indicators: The types of pottery indicate economic status. Luxury pottery like NBPW was reserved for the elite, while more common pottery suggests the everyday life of the broader society.
• Cultural and Religious Practices: Pottery had significant ritualistic and symbolic importance, used in religious ceremonies and burial rituals. Specific pots represented deities or were filled with sacred items like coconuts, bananas, and flowers.
• Technological and Artistic Development: The evolution of pottery-making, from handmade to wheel-thrown pottery, marks the increasing technological and artistic sophistication of ancient civilizations, highlighting advancements in both craftsmanship and creativity.
• Chronological Understanding: Pottery helps date ancient sites, providing key insights into the timeline of cultural and technological progress. It allows historians to map out the development of civilizations and better understand their historical context.

Why in the News?

The Union Minister of Culture and Tourism has announced the addition of six sites to India’s tentative UNESCO World Heritage List.

About the Sites

Why in the News?

Recently, PM Modi inaugurated the 25th edition of Jahaan-e-Khusrau, a Sufi music festival held at Sunder Nursery, New Delhi, in Khusrau’s honor.

Who was Amir Khusrau?

• Amir Khusrau was born in Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, to a Turkish father and an Indian mother.
• He served as a court poet to five Delhi Sultans:
  • Muiz ud din Qaiqabad of Mamluk Dynasty (1287–1290)
  • Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–1296)
  • Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)
  • Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320)
  • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325)
• He was deeply influenced by Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, whose teachings shaped his spiritual and poetic journey.
• He is fondly remembered as “The Parrot of India” (Tuti-e-Hind) for his eloquence.

Literary Contributions:

• Wrote in Persian and Hindavi, pioneering Khari Boli, the precursor to Hindi and Urdu.
• Created the first Hindi lexicon (Khalikbari), blending Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic words.

• Notable works:

• • Tughlaq Nama (historical epic)
  • Nuh Sipihr (Nine Skies)
  • In the Bazaar of Love (ghazals and poetry)
• Invented the qawwali tradition, merging Indian and Persian musical elements.
• Composed Chhap Tilak Sab Chheeni Re, Zehal-e-Miskeen, and Sakal Ban Phool Rahi Sarson.
• Credited with developing the sitar and tabla, though debated by historians.
• Most devoted disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
• Upon his master’s death in 1325, Khusrau followed within 6 months.
• His tomb lies beside Nizamuddin’s dargah in Delhi, symbolizing their eternal bond.
• Pioneered Hindavi poetry and laid the foundation for Hindi and Urdu literature.
• Inspired generations of ghazal and qawwali singers, including Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Abida Parveen.
• Festivals like Jahaan-e-Khusrau continue to honor his enduring cultural legacy.

Why in the News?

Recently, China’s Ambassador to India highlighted the historical significance of ‘Tea Horse Road’ in fostering Sino-Indian ties.

About the Tea Horse Road

• The Tea Horse Road originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
• Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded early trade between China, Tibet, and India, mentioning exchanges of sugar, textiles, and herbs.
• By the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), the trade focused on tea exports to Tibet and importing horses for China’s military.
• The network spanned over 2,000 km, crossing treacherous mountain passes at altitudes above 10,000 feet.
• The Tea Horse Road was not a single road but a network of multiple routes. Two primary routes were:

1. Yunnan Route:  Starting from Pu’er and Dali, passing through Lijiang, reaching Lhasa (Tibet), and extending into India (via Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan).
2. Sichuan Route: Connecting Chengdu (Sichuan) to Tibet and North India.

• Tea from southwestern China was transported to Tibet, then moved through the Himalayan passes to Kolkata and beyond, reaching Europe and Asia.
• The rise of modern roads and railways in the mid-20th century led to its gradual decline.

Historical Significance:

• Trade & Economy: Connected Tibet and China to India’s markets, facilitating the export of Chinese tea and Tibetan wool to Kolkata while Indian textiles and spices moved northward.
• Horses for Indian Cavalry: Tibetan horses, transported through the route, were crucial for Indian military campaigns, especially in the Mughal and British periods.
• Spread of Buddhism: The route enabled Buddhist scholars and monks to travel between Nalanda, Tibet, and China, promoting cultural and religious exchanges.
• Political & Diplomatic Relations: British India sought control over Sikkim and Tibet’s trade routes, leading to diplomatic interventions like the 1904 British expedition to Tibet.
• Impact on Himalayan Regions: Strengthened trade and cultural ties between Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tibet, influencing their shared heritage and economy.