GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Central Idea

• A groundbreaking 21-meter-long ship, constructed using an age-old technique of stitching wooden planks with ropes, cords, coconut fibers, natural resins, and oils, is scheduled to embark ‘Baliyatra’ from Odisha to Bali, Indonesia.
• The initiative, led by the Govt. of India, aims to rekindle the nation’s rich maritime tradition and heritage.
• This remarkable journey will be manned by a crew from the Indian Navy.

Early Evidence of Maritime Trade

• Ancient Maritime Trade: The presence of maritime trade networks dating back to circa 3300-1300 BCE is supported by evidence from the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, and coastal sites along the Arabian Sea. The engineering marvel of the dock at Lothal in Gujarat stands as a testament to the Indus civilization’s profound understanding of tides and winds.
• Historical Accounts: Ancient texts, including the Vedas (circa 1500-500 BCE), contain vivid accounts of seafaring adventures and the associated risks. Furthermore, the Jataka Tales (circa 300 BCE-400 CE) and Tamil Sangam literature (circa 300 BCE-300 CE) provide explicit references to maritime activities.

Challenges in Recognizing Maritime Heritage

• Historiographical Biases: Historians have often marginalized India’s maritime heritage in favor of narratives centered on land-based polities. This bias has led to the neglect of India’s maritime contributions.
• Emergence of Deep-Sea Voyages: The 1st century BCE witnessed intensified mid-ocean voyages driven by the Roman Empire’s demand for Eastern commodities, which harnessed monsoon winds and marked a significant turning point in maritime activity.

Ancient Indian Boats and Shipbuilding

• Limited Knowledge: The field of marine archaeology in India remains at an early stage of development, with primary insights derived from boat-building traditions, artistic depictions, and literary sources.
• Traditional Boat-Building Techniques: Indian boat construction traditions favor stitching planks of wood together instead of using nails. These traditions encompass coir-stitched, jong (Southeast Asian), and Austronesian methods, each employing various stitching techniques.
• Wood Selection: Selection of wood types for shipbuilding depended on their suitability for specific ship components. Mangrove wood excelled in creating sturdy dowels, while teak was preferred for planks, keels, stem, and stern posts.

India’s Role in Maritime Trade

• Trade Lake of the Indian Ocean: By the Common Era, the Indian Ocean had evolved into a thriving trade network, with India positioned at its heart. This network facilitated trade connections between India and Europe via the Middle East and Africa in the west, as well as Southeast Asia, China, and Malaysia in the east.
• Evidence of Scale: Estimates indicate the colossal scale of trade, with customs taxes collected from the Red Sea trade route alone contributing significantly to the Roman exchequer.

Uncovering a Hidden Past

• Ongoing Exploration: Recent excavations have provided substantial insights into India’s maritime history. Nevertheless, experts acknowledge that numerous discoveries await on this journey of exploration.
• Need for Investment: Marine archaeology in India requires increased funding and recognition to unlock its full potential and contribute meaningfully to humanity’s understanding of the past.
• Value of Knowledge: Scientific archaeology’s pursuit of India’s deep maritime past offers the potential for immense benefits to humanity. Engaging with this history challenges conventional narratives and represents a subversive yet essential endeavor.

Conclusion

• The forthcoming voyage of the stitched ship symbolizes India’s dedicated efforts to rejuvenate its maritime heritage, shedding light on the forgotten history of Indian seafarers and their remarkable vessels.
• Through exploration and study, India seeks to restore the rightful place of its maritime legacy in the annals of history.

Central Idea

• A team from Buddhavanam Theme Park in Hyderabad embarked on a significant visit to Sri Lanka.
• Their destination: the third-century BC Buddhist rock-cut caves at Mathale, situated on the Colombo-Kandy route.

Why such move?

• The team noted that the teachings of Lord Buddha, known as Tripitaka (Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma pitakas), were originally transmitted orally.
• However, it was under the auspices of Sri Lankan king Devanampiya Tissa, a contemporary of King Asoka, that these teachings were written on palm leaves in Sri Lanka.
• This event marked the advent of Buddhist literature in India.

About Tripitaka

• The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon, is a collection of sacred Buddhist scriptures that form the foundational texts of the Theravada Buddhist tradition.
• It is divided into three sections, known as the Tripitaka, which literally means “Three Baskets.”

History and significance

• The Tripitaka was orally transmitted from the time of Gautama Buddha in the 5th century BCE until it was eventually written down in the 1st century BCE.
• It holds immense historical and religious significance as it contains the teachings, discourses, rules, and guidelines given by the Buddha and his prominent disciples.

Composition of the Tripitaka:

(1) Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline):

• Comprises the rules and guidelines for monastic discipline in the Buddhist community.
• Provides detailed instructions on the conduct and behavior expected from monks and nuns.
• Covers various aspects, including ethical guidelines, disciplinary codes, and procedures for resolving disputes.
• Offers insights into the monastic life, the organization of the Sangha (monastic community), and the role of the monastic code in maintaining harmony and ethical conduct.

(2) Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses):

• Contains the discourses and teachings delivered by Buddha and his close disciples.
• Includes a vast collection of discourses covering a wide range of topics, such as ethics, meditation, philosophy, and social issues.
• Consists of individual Suttas (discourses) grouped into different collections or Nikayas, such as the Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses), Majjhima Nikaya (Middle-Length Discourses), Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourses), and Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Discourses).
• Presents the Buddha’s profound teachings on the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, dependent origination, and other core concepts of Buddhism.

(3) Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings):

• Provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of Buddhist philosophy and psychology.
• Explores the nature of mind, consciousness, and reality in intricate detail.
• Presents the teachings in a more technical and analytical manner, offering an advanced understanding of Buddhist concepts.
• Divided into seven books, known as the Abhidhamma books, which delve into topics such as consciousness, mental factors, elements, and the path to liberation.
• Offers a deep exploration of the ultimate nature of existence and the workings of the mind.

Features and Characteristics

• Authenticity and Authority: The Tripitaka is regarded as the most authoritative and authentic collection of Buddhist scriptures in the Theravada tradition.
• Canonical Language: The texts are primarily written in Pali, an ancient Indian language close to the language spoken during the Buddha’s time.
• Extensive Coverage: The Tripitaka covers a wide range of topics, offering comprehensive guidance for practitioners in various aspects of life.
• Preservation of Early Buddhist Teachings: The Tripitaka is believed to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha, providing insights into his wisdom and teachings.

Central Idea

• A monumental 108-foot-tall statue of Hindu saint Adi Shankaracharya, known as ‘Ekatmata Ki Pratima’ (Statue of Oneness), was recently unveiled in Omkareshwar, Khandwa district, Madhya Pradesh.
• This project is part of the government’s efforts to develop Omkareshwar as a prominent religious and tourism destination.

Adi Shankaracharya: A Brief Overview

• Adi Shankaracharya was a prominent Indian philosopher and theologian, often referred to as Sankara (Jagatguru). He was a staunch advocate of ancient Hinduism.
• His birthplace Kaladi in Ernakulam, Kerala, is poised to be declared a national monument.
• He received guidance from his guru, Govinda Bhagavatpada, under whom he diligently studied texts like ‘Gaudapadiya Karika,’ ‘Brahmasutra,’ Vedas, and Upanishads.
• Shankara propagated the philosophies of ‘Advaita Vedanta’ and ‘Dashanami Sampradaya,’ earning him the title ‘Shankaracharya’ among his disciples.

His Philosophy: Advaita Vedanta

• Non-Dualism: Shankaracharya’s philosophy, known as ‘Advaita Vedanta,’ espouses non-dualism.
• Ultimate Reality: It asserts that the world exists due to the creative energy (Maya) of Brahman, the ultimate, transcendent, and immanent God of the later Vedas.
• Identity of Self: In Advaita Vedanta, the transcendental self of the universe (Atman) and the experiencing self (Jiva) are both identical in truth – both are Brahman. However, the individual self appears different, akin to space inside a container seeming distinct from space as a whole.
• Overcoming Error: Mistakes and ignorance lead to a plurality (Avidya), but understanding Brahman eliminates these errors, resulting in liberation from the cycle of reincarnation and worldly servitude.

Disciples of Adi Shankaracharya

Shankaracharya’s four closest disciples played pivotal roles in propagating his teachings:

1. Padmapada: Known for his deep devotion and poetry.
2. Totakacharya: Devoted to Shankaracharya’s mission and revered for his poetry “Totakashtakam.”
3. Hasta Malaka: A child prodigy who astounded Shankaracharya with his understanding of Advaita philosophy.
4. Sureshwara: Initially a householder, he became a disciple after losing a philosophical debate to Shankaracharya.

Contributions of Adi Shankaracharya

• Shankaracharya introduced the ‘Shanmata’ system, which emphasized worship of the five principal deities and restored the Dashanami structure.
• He composed numerous devotional and meditative hymns and authored key texts on Advaita Vedanta, including commentaries on major scriptures.
• Adi Shankaracharya revitalized Hinduism at a time when it faced challenges from Jainism and Buddhism, promoting unity and re-establishing traditions.
• He established four monastic institutions (Mathas) in different corners of India, unifying the nation and codifying leadership roles:

1. Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetam in Chikmaglur in Karnataka
2. Jyotir Matha in the Garhwal region in Uttarakhand
3. Kalika Matha in Dwarka in Gujarat
4. Govardhana Matha in Puri in Odisha

Central Idea

• Vice-President Jagdeep Dhankhar raised the national flag at the Gaja Dwar (elephant gate) of India’s new Parliament building just days before its first session.
• This event sheds light on the symbolic importance of the Gaja Dwar and the other entrances in the new Parliament.

Gaja Dwar (Elephant Gate)

• Wisdom and Wealth: The new Parliament building features six entrances, each representing a distinct role. The Gaja Dwar, adorned with a sculpture of an elephant, guards the northern entrance. The elephant is a symbol of wisdom, wealth, intellect, memory, and embodies the aspirations of elected representatives in the democracy.
• Vastu Shastra: According to Vastu shastra, the northern direction is associated with planet Mercury, the source of higher intellect, and is presided over by Kubera, the god of wealth. Hence, the Gaja is placed at the northern entrance.

Cultural Symbolism

• Guardian Statues: All six entrances of the New Parliament Building feature red sandstone sculptures of auspicious animals known as “guardian statues.” These selections were made based on their significance in Indian culture, aesthetic appeal, positive qualities, and Vaastu Shastra principles.

1. Asva (Horse): Positioned at the southern entrance, the vigilant horse symbolizes endurance, strength, power, and speed, reflecting the quality of governance.
2. Garuda (Eagle-like Bird): The Garuda stands at the eastern ceremonial entrance, representing the aspirations of the people and the country’s administrators. In Vastu shastra, the east is associated with the rising sun, symbolizing hope, victory, and success.
3. Makara (Mythological Aquatic Creature): Combining features of different animals, the Makara signifies unity in diversity among the nation’s people.
4. Shardula (Mythological Creature): Regarded as the most powerful among all living beings, the Shardula symbolizes the strength of the country’s people.
5. Hamsa (Swan): Located at the public entrance to the northeast, the Hamsa highlights the essential quality of discernment and self-realization, born of wisdom, in the nation’s people.

Ceremonial Entrances

• Three of these entrances are designed as ceremonial entrances, meant to welcome special guests and mark significant events.
• These entrances showcase Indian art, culture, ethos, and patriotism.
• They are named Gyan, Shakti, and Karma, representing the Indian knowledge system, patriotism, and artistic traditions, respectively.

Central Idea

• Situated in West Bengal’s Birbhum district, the small town of Santiniketan has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
• This is the place where Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore spent much of his life.

About Santiniketan

• Santiniketan, situated in Birbhum District, West Bengal, India, is an iconic cultural and heritage destination with a rich historical legacy.
• Its prominence is attributed to its association with Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore.

Significance of Santiniketan

• Rabindranath Tagore’s Home: Santiniketan served as the residence of Rabindranath Tagore, where he not only lived but also composed numerous literary works, encompassing songs, poems, and novels.
• Artistic Abode: The Santiniketan campus is adorned with magnificent sculptures, frescoes, murals, and paintings created by eminent artists like Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Ramkinkar, Binodbehari Mukhopadhyay, and others.
• Cultural Festivals: The broader Birbhum District, where Santiniketan is nestled, is renowned for its vibrant fairs and festivals. Notable celebrations include Poush Mela (December), Joydev Mela (January), Basanta Utsav (Holi) in March and the renowned mystic Baul Singers.
• Unique Events: Santiniketan hosts special cultural festivities during Bengali New Year and Rabindra Janmotsav (Rabindranath Tagore’s birth anniversary) in the Bengali month of Boisakh, marked with great enthusiasm.
• Distinctive Festivals: The region observes distinctive festivals such as Briksharopan (festival of Planting Saplings) and Halakarshan (festival of Plowing the Fields) on the 22nd and 23rd days of Sravana (August), respectively. Additionally, Varshamangal, the festival of rains, is celebrated in August/September.
• Poush Mela: Santiniketan hosts the annual Poush Mela, commencing on the 7th day of the Poush month. While officially spanning three days, vendors may extend their stay throughout the month. The festival is renowned for live performances of Bengali folk music, particularly by bauls (traditional wandering minstrels), and showcases tribal dances like Santali.

West Bengal’s Presence on the World Heritage List

• Santiniketan is the second cultural symbol from West Bengal to join the prestigious UNESCO list.
• In 2021, UNESCO added ‘Durga Puja in Kolkata’ to its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list, highlighting West Bengal’s rich cultural heritage.

Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Note: “States parties” refer to the countries that have ratified the World Heritage Convention and participate in the decision-making process.

Central Idea

• The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, announced at the G20 Summit, traces its historical roots to an ancient maritime trade route connecting the Indian subcontinent and the Europe.

India- Europe: Glimpse into Historical Trade Route

• Early Discoveries: The trade between Rome and India during antiquity was established by early excavations. Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s work at Arikamedu in the 1930s and 40s confirmed the existence of Indo-Roman trade in the 1st century CE.
• Recent excavations: Ongoing archaeological excavations, such as those at Muziris in Kerala and Berenike in Egypt, continue to yield new evidence.
• Revised Understanding: However, early interpretations often overlooked the agency of Indian merchants and ship owners in this trade. Recent discoveries have expanded and corrected our understanding of this ancient trade network.
• Staggering Scale: Recent estimates, supported by the Muziris Papyrus, reveal the immense scale of the Red Sea trade. Custom taxes on goods from India, Persia, and Ethiopia possibly contributed up to one-third of the Roman exchequer’s income.

Details unveiled by Muziris Excavations

• Custom Taxes: The Muziris Papyrus detailed a cargo’s value, highlighting its enormous worth, with one cargo alone being equivalent to the purchase of premium farmland in Egypt or a prestigious estate in central Italy.
• Roman Revenue: The import tax collected on this cargo alone exceeded two million sesterces. Extrapolating from these figures, Indian imports into Egypt were likely worth over a billion sesterces annually, with tax authorities generating 270 million sesterces.
• Comparative Significance: These revenues surpassed those of entire subject countries, emphasizing the pivotal role of this trade route in sustaining the Roman Empire’s vast conquests and legions.

Trade details

• Peak Period: During the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, a maritime highway connected the Roman Empire and India through the Red Sea. This route witnessed hundreds of ships travelling in both directions annually.
• Traded Goods: The Romans had a great demand for Indian luxuries, including perfumes, ivory, pearls, gemstones, and exotic animals like elephants and tigers. Pepper, India’s major export, was particularly sought after, finding its way into Roman cuisine.
• Trade from Rome: The flow of goods from Rome to India was limited, with gold being a prominent export. Roman wine was one notable exception, appreciated by Indians.

Pre-Common Era Trade

• Early Indian Diaspora: Evidence suggests the existence of an Indian diaspora in the Middle East during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300-1300 BCE). This early trade was coastal and involved smaller quantities of goods.
• Roman Period Expansion: The trade expanded significantly during Roman times, facilitated by large cargo ships directly connecting the subcontinent and the Roman Empire. Romans played a key role in industrializing this trade.
• Post-Conquest Peak: The conquest of Egypt by the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE opened up the route to India, leading to a substantial increase in trade.

Organization and Duration of Journeys

• Highly Organized Trade: Contracts were established between Indian merchants in Kerala and shippers in Alexandria. Goods were transported in containers, similar to modern practices, with references to insurance.
• Understanding Monsoons: Indians recognized the monsoon winds’ seasonal patterns, enabling them to navigate the route efficiently. The journey to Egypt took approximately six to eight weeks, depending on favorable wind conditions.
• Extended Stays: Indian diaspora rented houses in Egyptian ports while waiting for wind patterns to shift, allowing for the integration of Indian culture into these regions.

Roles of Indians in the Trade

• Indian Seafaring Culture: Evidence suggests that Indian dynasties were interested in seafaring, as depicted in Ajanta paintings and early Indian coin designs featuring ships.
• Indian Sailors: Graffiti left by Indian sailors, primarily Gujaratis from Barigaza (modern-day Bharuch), has been discovered in the Hoq caves on the island of Socotra, emphasizing their active participation in the trade network.

Comparing with the Silk Road

• Indian Centrality: The ancient economic and cultural hub of Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and its ports played a central role in maritime East-West exchange. The concept of the “Silk Road” is relatively recent and inaccurately portrays the ancient trade routes.
• Historical Invisibility: The Silk Road concept was coined in the late 19th century and did not exist in ancient or medieval times. It gained popularity in the 20th century, fostering romanticized ideas about East-West connectivity.
• Recent Politicization: Chinese President Xi Jinping’s Belt and Road Initiative has politicized the Silk Road, making it a central component of Chinese foreign policy.