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GS Paper: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

  • NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP)

    Why in the News?

    NASA has recently launched the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Kennedy Space Centre, Florida.

    About IMAP Mission:

    • Context: Operates under NASA’s Solar Terrestrial Probes Program, following missions like STEREO and IBEX.
    • Objective: To map the heliosphere boundary, study energetic particle acceleration, and understand how the solar wind interacts with the interstellar medium.
    • Location: Positioned at Sun–Earth Lagrange Point 1 (L1), ~1.5 million km from Earth, ensuring continuous solar observation.

    NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP)

    Back2Basics: Heliosphere

    • The heliosphere is a vast bubble-like region around the Sun created by the flow of solar wind (charged particles emitted by the Sun).
    • It extends well beyond Pluto and acts as a shield, protecting the solar system from much of the harmful cosmic radiation from interstellar space.
    • Its outer boundary, called the heliopause, marks where solar wind pressure balances with interstellar medium pressure.

    Key Features:

    • Scientific Payload: 10 instruments including- Energetic Neutral Atom Detectors; Charged Particle Detectors and Magnetic & Dust Sensors.
    • Real-Time Alerts: Equipped with I-ALiRT (Active Link for Real-Time) to broadcast space weather data and provide ~30 minutes’ warning of harmful solar radiation.
    • Spacecraft Design: Spin-stabilized, in a Lissajous orbit around L1, ensuring Sun-facing stability.
    • Enhanced Sensitivity: Higher resolution compared to ACE and IBEX, enabling detection of faint cosmic signals.

    Significance:

    • Scientific: Creates the most detailed maps of the heliosphere boundary, improves understanding of solar wind, cosmic rays, and space weather.
    • Technological: Strengthens space weather forecasting, safeguarding satellites, GPS systems, and power grids.
    • Human Spaceflight: Critical for Artemis and future deep-space missions, informing radiation shielding and safe travel routes.
    • Global Collaboration: Complements missions like NASA–ESA’s Solar Orbiter and the upcoming LISA mission, boosting multi-messenger space science.
    • Habitability Research: Provides insights into how heliospheres shield planets, vital for studying Earth’s resilience and exoplanet habitability.
    [UPSC 2016] What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news?

    Options: (a) Electric plane tested by NASA *

    (b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan

    (c) Space observatory launched by China

    (d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO

     

  • Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

    Why in the News?

    Scientists are planning the Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project on the Moon to bypass seismic noise, atmosphere, and frequency limits faced by Earth-based detectors like Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO).

    What are Gravitational Waves?

    • Overview: Gravitational waves are ripples in the spacetime continuum created when massive objects such as black holes or neutron stars collide.
    • Speed & Effect: They travel at the speed of light, subtly stretching and compressing spacetime. On small scales, effects are extremely weak (e.g., Earth–Moon distance altered by less than an atom’s diameter).
    • Prediction: Proposed by Albert Einstein (1916) in his General Theory of Relativity.
    • First Detection: In 2015, LIGO recorded the first gravitational waves from two colliding black holes 1.3 billion light-years away, confirming their existence.

    Detection on Earth and Challenges:

    • Ground Observatories: LIGO (USA), Virgo (Italy), KAGRA (Japan), GEO600 (Germany) use laser interferometers to detect minuscule delays in light caused by waves.
    • Working of LIGO: Two L-shaped detectors (Louisiana, Washington), each with 4 km arms; differences in reflections signal gravitational waves.
    • Detection Range: Sensitive to events up to 7 billion light years away; frequency range ~100–1,000 Hz.
    • Challenges: Seismic noise, atmosphere, and human activity mask weaker signals.
    • Future Space Missions:
      • LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, 2030s): Three satellites in triangular formation, sensitive to 0.1 millihertz–0.1 hertz.
      • SKA (Square Kilometre Array, Australia & South Africa): Monitors pulsars for nanohertz waves.
      • Decihertz Gap: Frequencies 0.1–10 Hz remain unexplored, which LILA aims to study.

    About Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

    • Overview: Proposed by Vanderbilt Lunar Labs, USA, to build a gravitational-wave detector on the Moon.
    • Ideal Conditions: The Moon’s polar shadow zones provide ultra-low seismic activity, natural vacuum, and no atmospheric or radio interference.
    • Focus: Sub-hertz gravitational waves, vital for studying intermediate-mass black holes and the early universe.
    • Phases:
      • LILA Pioneer: Can be deployed within this decade using American lunar landers (Blue Origin, Intuitive Machines) and possibly India’s Chandrayaan programme.
      • LILA Horizon: Advanced phase requiring astronauts for setup.
    • Cosmic Symphony Analogy:
      • SKA: Captures low-frequency “bass notes.”
      • LIGO (and future LIGO-India): Detects high-pitched bursts from stellar collisions.
      • LILA: Covers missing middle frequencies, completing the “cosmic raag.”
    • Historical Note: Since Apollo, retro-reflectors on the Moon track Earth–Moon distance. Some scientists suggest the Earth–Moon system itself acts as a natural detector.

    Significance:

    • Scientific Advancement: Opens the decihertz frontier, inaccessible so far.
    • Global Collaboration: Complements LIGO-India (IndIGO project), operational by 2030.
    • Research Potential: Helps study intermediate-mass black holes, cosmic mergers, and universe origins.
    • Lunar Astronomy: Marks the start of using the Moon as a laboratory for space science.
    • Holistic Coverage: With LISA, SKA, and Earth detectors, LILA would map the entire gravitational-wave spectrum, giving a complete picture of the universe.
    [UPSC 2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.”  The experiment in question refers to

    Options: (a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA*

     

  • [29th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: An Engel’s pause in an AI-shaped world

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in the healthcare?

    Linkage: This question reflects the exact dilemma discussed in the Engels’ pause analogy—AI promises higher productivity (e.g., clinical diagnosis, efficiency) but without governance, the welfare gains (privacy, equitable access, trust) may lag, creating social costs.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is hailed as the new Industrial Revolution, but as Geoffrey Hinton warns, it could also deepen inequality by making a few rich while leaving the majority poorer. This paradox, reminiscent of Friedrich Engels’ 19th-century observation, raises a pressing question for policymakers: Are we entering a modern “Engels’ pause” where productivity soars but living standards stagnate? For UPSC aspirants, this debate is central to GS 1 (industrial revolution parallels), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (technology, economy), and GS 4 (ethics of equity in innovation).

    Introduction

    The concept of an Engels’ pause, coined by economist Robert Allen, describes a historical paradox in 19th-century Britain: industrial output grew rapidly, yet wages stagnated, food prices soared, and inequality widened. The benefits of industrialization reached the majority only after decades, with reforms and institutional adjustments.

    Today, AI as a general-purpose technology (GPT)—akin to steam power, electricity, or the internet—brings unprecedented productivity potential but also risks replicating this paradox. With Nobel Laureate Geoffrey Hinton warning of AI enriching a few at the expense of many, and evidence of uneven benefits emerging globally, the Engels’ pause metaphor becomes a crucial analytical lens.

    Why in the News?

    Artificial Intelligence is reshaping global economies, but early signs suggest a disconnect between productivity gains and broad-based prosperity. A recent Stanford study showed younger workers are more vulnerable to AI displacement, while an Indian IT giant laid off 12,000 employees in its AI pivot. Meanwhile, a MIT study revealed that 95% of AI pilots are failing to deliver visible gains due to weak complementary capabilities. In the Philippines, call centres recorded 30–50% productivity jumps with AI copilots, yet wages stagnated and workloads intensified. PwC forecasts AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030, but gains are concentrated in a few countries and firms. These developments highlight the possibility of an AI-induced Engels’ pause, making it a critical debate for global governance.

    Are We Facing a Modern Engels’ Pause?

    1. Historical Parallels: Like 19th-century Britain, current AI-driven growth risks benefiting capital over labour, delaying welfare gains for the majority.
    2. Vulnerable Workers: Stanford research shows younger workers are most exposed to AI disruptions.
    3. Sectoral Displacement: IT, healthcare, education, and even government (e.g., Albania’s AI Minister) are witnessing job/task reconfigurations.

    What Are the Markers of an AI Engels’ Pause?

    1. Stagnant Wages despite Productivity Gains: Philippines call centres show higher efficiency but little improvement in wages.
    2. Rising Costs of Complements: Cloud computing, retraining, coding bootcamps, and cybersecurity raise the “price of staying relevant”.
    3. Unequal Distribution of Gains: PwC’s $15.7 trillion AI GDP addition is concentrated in the U.S., China, and a few tech firms. IMF (2024) warns 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed, with advanced economies at greater risk of skilled substitution.
    4. Intensified Inequality: Research on India shows stronger IPR regimes widened wage inequality during tech races.

    How Can Governance Break the Pause?

    1. Skilling and Transition Models: Singapore’s SkillsFuture programme and MBZUAI (world’s first AI university) highlight proactive reskilling.
    2. Redistribution Tools: Robot taxes and Universal Basic Income (UBI) pilots in the UK and EU aim to channel AI rents toward social welfare.
    3. AI Infrastructure as Public Good: Compute and data should be democratized; initiatives like K2Think.ai (UAE) and Apertus (Switzerland) are steps in building open, public AI models.

    Why This Time Might Be Different

    1. Stronger Welfare Systems: Unlike 19th-century Britain, today’s democracies have safety nets and global institutions.
    2. Rapid Diffusion of Technology: Smartphones reached billions within a decade; AI could follow a similar trajectory.
    3. Potential Social Benefits: AI could lower costs in healthcare, education, and energy if deployed equitably.

    Conclusion

    The Engels’ pause analogy underscores a profound warning: productivity gains do not automatically translate into welfare improvements. AI governance, skilling programmes, redistribution mechanisms, and public-good infrastructure will determine whether AI becomes a human welfare revolution rather than just a productivity revolution. Political will, not just technological breakthroughs, will decide if this pause is short-lived or prolonged.

    Value Addition

    Scholarly References and Thinkers

    1. Robert C. Allen (2009): Coined Engels’ Pause in economic history; wages stagnated despite industrial productivity growth in 19th-century Britain.
    2. Nicholas Crafts (2021): Noted that GPTs like AI need institutional reforms and complementary innovations before welfare spreads.
    3. Bojan Jovanovic & Rousseau (2005): Documented “technology shocks” in U.S. economy → initial dislocation before long-term growth.
    4. Geoffrey Hinton (2024, FT Interview): Warned AI may “make a few rich and the rest poorer.”
    5. Agrawal, Gans & Goldfarb (2018): Defined AI as lowering the cost of prediction.

    Key Reports and Data Points

    1. PwC Report (2018): AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030; 70% of gains concentrated in U.S. and China.
    2. IMF Report (2024): 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed; higher risk of high-skilled substitution in advanced economies.
    3. MIT Study (2023): Found that 95% of AI pilot projects failed to show visible gains due to lack of complementary capabilities.
    4. Stanford Study (2023): “Canaries in the Coal Mine” → younger workers are most vulnerable to AI disruption.
    5. OECD AI Principles (2019): Global governance framework emphasising fairness, transparency, accountability.

    International Best Practices / Programs

    1. Singapore – SkillsFuture (2015): Provides continuous education credits for workers to reskill; considered a global model.
    2. UAE – Mohamed bin Zayed University of AI (MBZUAI, 2019): World’s first dedicated AI university.
    3. European Union – AI Act (2021 Draft): Risk-based framework regulating AI applications.
    4. United Kingdom – UBI Experiments: Pilots to test redistribution of tech-driven wealth.
    5. Albania – First AI Minister (2024): Institutional adoption of AI governance in public administration.

    Indian Context and Initiatives

    1. NITI Aayog’s National Strategy on AI (2018): “AI for All” approach—priority areas: healthcare, education, agriculture, mobility.
    2. Digital India Programme: Expanding digital infrastructure to enable AI adoption.
    3. National Programme on AI (2019): Envisioned as a Center of Excellence ecosystem for skilling, research, and governance.
    4. NASSCOM FutureSkills Prime: Public–private initiative to reskill 2 million professionals in emerging tech, including AI.
    5. IndiaAI Portal (2023): Central knowledge hub for AI use cases and policy discussions.

    Key Concepts for Thematic Depth

    1. General-Purpose Technology (GPT): Technologies with cross-sectoral transformative impact (steam, electricity, internet, AI).
    2. Complementary Innovations: Need for institutional reforms, new tasks, and human capital for GPT diffusion.
    3. Job Polarisation: Middle-skill jobs displaced → low-skill and high-skill jobs expand; seen in OECD labour markets.
    4. Robot Tax (Bill Gates’ Proposal): Idea of taxing automation to fund welfare.
    5. Universal Basic Income (UBI): Redistribution mechanism to tackle inequality in tech-driven economies.

    Comparative Historical Perspective

    1. Industrial Revolution (19th c. Britain): Productivity rose but welfare stagnated → Engels’ Pause.
    2. Gilded Age (U.S.): Huge inequality, labour unrest; later corrected via welfare state reforms.
    3. Digital Revolution (1990s): Internet adoption uneven; productivity surge lagged behind wages initially.

    Ethical and Governance Dimensions

    1. Equity and Justice (GS4): AI could worsen inequality unless governed inclusively.
    2. Privacy: Particularly sensitive in healthcare (HIPAA in U.S.; India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023).
    3. Transparency: AI “black box” models challenge accountability.
    4. Democratic Deficit: AI development is corporate-heavy; needs citizen-centric governance.

  • Desert Soilification Technology

    Why in the News?

    For the first time, researchers at the Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) have successfully grown wheat in arid land of western Rajasthan using desert soilification technology.

    What is Desert Soilification Technology?

    • Overview: It is an innovative biotechnological method that transforms barren desert sand into soil-like material capable of supporting agriculture.
    • Technology: It uses bioformulations and polymers to bind loose sand particles, improve soil texture, and enable water retention.
    • Utility: It is designed to combat desertification, enhance agricultural productivity in arid zones, and ensure sustainable land use.
    • How does it work?
      • Polymer-based Bioformulation: Natural polymers and microbial formulations are applied to desert sand.
      • Cross-Linking of Sand Particles: Bio-polymers create a structural network, binding sand grains together into a soil-like matrix.
      • Water Retention: The cross-linked structure traps water, drastically reducing irrigation needs and preventing rapid percolation of water through sandy soil.
      • Microbial Boost: Introduced beneficial microbes stimulate plant growth, improve soil fertility, and enhance stress resistance of crops.
      • Soil-like Properties: The modified sand mimics fertile soil — enabling nutrient retention, microbial colonization, and sustainable cropping.

    Key Features:

    • Sand-to-Soil Conversion: Cross-links sand particles into a soil-like structure, creating porosity and root-holding capacity.
    • Water Retention Efficiency: Increases moisture-holding ability of sand, thereby reducing irrigation requirements by 30–40%.
    • Microbial Boost: Bioformulation stimulates beneficial soil microbes, enhancing nutrient cycling and crop stress resistance.
    • Crop Versatility: Tested successfully with wheat, bajra, guar gum, chickpea, and is now being expanded to millets and green gram.
    • Low Input Agriculture: Reduces number of irrigation cycles (3–4 vs 5–6 in normal wheat farming).
    • Climate Resilience: Provides a sustainable model for food production in water-stressed and desertified regions.
    • Scalability: Can be replicated in other arid ecosystems beyond Rajasthan (potential use in Middle East, Africa).
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following best describes the concept of ‘Small Farmer Large Field’?

    (a) Resettling war-displaced people on shared cultivable land

    (b) Marginal farmers group to coordinate farm operations *

    (c) Marginal farmers lease land collectively to a corporate

    (d) A company funds and guides farmers to grow required crops

     

  • What is Uranium Enrichment?

    Why in the News?

    Iran’s supreme leader recently said Tehran has limited uranium enrichment to 60% U-235 and will not pursue further enrichment to ~90% (weapons grade).

    About Uranium Enrichment:

    • What is it: The process of increasing the proportion of U-235 isotope in uranium samples. Natural uranium has only 0.7% U-235, while the rest is mostly U-238.
    • Types of Enrichment:
      • Low-Enriched Uranium (3–5%): Used in civilian nuclear power reactors.
      • Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU, >20%): At 90%+ enrichment, uranium becomes weapons-grade, usable for efficient nuclear weapons.
    • Methods: Physical separation methods such as gas centrifuges, requiring advanced infrastructure and technology.
    • Implications:
      • Low enrichment: Controlled power generation.
      • High enrichment: Proliferation risks, shorter path to nuclear weapons capability.

    What is Uranium Enrichment?

    Controversy about Iran’s Pursuit:

    • Declared Program: Iran enriches uranium to 60% U-235, claiming peaceful purposes, but insists it will not pursue 90%+ enrichment.
    • Global Concerns:
      • Civilian irrelevance: 60% has no reactor use, only shortens the “breakout time” to weapons-grade.
      • IAEA Monitoring: International Atomic Energy Agency reports show significant 60% stockpiles, heightening suspicion.
    • Geopolitical Context:
      • Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) capped enrichment at 3.67% but collapsed after U.S. withdrawal in 2018.
      • Western governments see 60% enrichment as undermining trust, while Iran argues it is a deterrence and bargaining tool.
    • Strategic Dimension: Keeps Iran on the nuclear threshold, enabling leverage in negotiations and projecting deterrence without overt weaponisation.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most of its electricity production.

    Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent of at least 60%, is required for the production of electricity.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

    (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1

    (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect *

    (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

     

  • Roadmap for India’s Fusion Power Plan

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar have released a roadmap for India’s fusion programme, envisioning the Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak-Bharat (SST-Bharat) as the country’s first fusion electricity generator.

    Back2Basics: ITER and India’s Contribution in ITER

    • ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor): It is the world’s largest nuclear fusion project, based in France, involving 35 nations.
      • What is Nuclear Fusion: It is the process where light atomic nuclei, like hydrogen, combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy, as seen in the Sun and stars.
    • Aim: Demonstrate safe, carbon-free fusion energy by achieving Q = 10 (500 MW output from 50 MW input).
    • Uses Tokamak design, heating plasma to 150 million °C with superconducting magnets.
    • India joined as a full partner in 2005, contributing 9% of ITER hardware (~₹17,500 crore).
    • Major Indian contributions:
      • Partnership: Member since 2005, contributes 9% of hardware (~₹17,500 crore) with full IP rights.
      • Cryostat (3,800 tonnes, world’s largest vacuum vessel) – fabricated by L&T in Gujarat.
      • Superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, RF heating systems, diagnostics, and shielding modules.
      • R&D on lithium-lead breeder blankets for tritium self-sufficiency in fusion reactors.
    • ITER serves as a training ground for Indian scientists, engineers, and industry, strengthening the country’s precision engineering and high-tech capabilities.

    Roadmap for India’s Fusion Power Plan:

    • Vision: Outlined by the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Gandhinagar, aligned with India’s Net Zero 2070 goal.
    • Strategy: Transition from fusion–fission hybrids (SST-Bharat) to a full fusion demonstration reactor (INDRA) by 2060.
    • Phased Targets:
      • 2025–2035: ITER participation, validation of deuterium-tritium (D–T) fueling, superconducting magnets, and plasma control.
      • 2035–2060: Build INDRA (500 MWe, Q > 20), continuous operation >6 months, tritium breeding ratio >1.1.
      • Post-2060: Commercial-scale fusion plants, target 50 GW fusion capacity by 2100, offsetting ~750 MT CO₂ annually.
    • Hybrid Approach: Fusion neutrons to drive thorium-based subcritical assemblies until pure fusion matures.
    • Innovations: Digital twins of tokamaks, AI-assisted plasma confinement, and radiation-resistant materials.
    • Global Context: UK STEP targets 2040, US startups 2030s, China’s EAST plasma records; India aims for 2060 cautiously.

    About Steady-State Superconducting Tokamak-Bharat (SST-Bharat):

    • Design: Planned as India’s first fusion electricity generator, a fusion–fission hybrid.
    • Output: 130 MW total; 100 MW from fission, 30 MW from fusion.
    • Target: Q-Value = 5 (fusion output/input ratio), vs ITER’s goal of Q = 10.
    • Cost: Estimated at ₹25,000 crore.
    • Features: Superconducting magnets, advanced plasma control, hybrid breeding design to generate fuel and reduce waste.
    • Legacy: Builds on SST-1 tokamak, which achieved 650 ms confinement (designed for up to 16 min).
    • Goal: Pave way for INDRA (250 MW, Q = 20) by 2060.
    [UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?

    Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation

    (b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation

    (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation

    (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*

    [UPSC 2025] The fusion energy programme in India has steadily evolved over the past few decades. Mention India’s contributions to the international fusion energy project International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). What will be the implications of the success of this project for the future of global energy?

     

  • Optical Computing and AI with Light

    Why in the News?

    Finnish researchers showed that nonlinear optical fibres can perform AI tasks efficiently, advancing optical computing.

    About Optical Computing:

    • Overview: A computer that uses light (photons) instead of electricity (electrons) to process data.
    • Why Important: Light is faster, makes less heat, and carries more data at once.
    • Technology Used: Runs through optical fibres, the same cables that carry internet data.
    • Main Challenge: Hard to control how light behaves, especially when it gets very strong and non-linear (changes colour, merges, or spreads).

    Recent Breakthrough:

    • Research:
      • Turned images into light pulses.
      • Sent them through optical fibre where the light changed.
      • These changes acted like a hidden computing layer.
      • The system read the light at the other end to classify the images.
    • Results: Reached 91–93% accuracy, close to normal AI computers.

    How can it help AI working?

    • Energy-efficient AI hardware: Can make faster and greener AI systems in the future.
    • Tech needs: New tools like photonic chips and optical neural networks before large-scale use.
    [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing* (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

     

  • Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs) and the Big Bang

    Extreme Nuclear Transient

    Why in the News?

    New research by the University of Hawaii has discovered Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs), the most powerful explosions since the Big Bang, surpassing even gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) in energy output.

    Back2Basics: Big Bang

    • Proponent: In 1927 by Georges Lemaître.
    • Timeline: Universe originated ~13.7–13.8 billion years ago from a singularity.
    • Phases: Began with cosmic inflation, followed by expansion, cooling, and formation of matter, light, and four fundamental forces.
    • Cosmic Evolution: Led to atoms, stars, galaxies, and planets; universe still expanding.
    • Evidence: Supported by cosmic microwave background radiation and Hubble’s observations of galaxy redshifts.

    About Extreme Nuclear Transients (ENTs):

    • Discovery: First reported by astronomers at the University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy (IfA).
    • Cause: Triggered when massive stars (≥3 times Sun’s mass) are torn apart by supermassive black holes at galactic centers.
    • Energy Output: Release ten times more energy than gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), earlier considered the brightest cosmic events.
    • Duration: Remain luminous in radio wavelengths for years, unlike short-lived bursts.

    How ENTs differ from other cosmic events?

    • Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs): They come from collapsing stars or mergers; short-lived but highly energetic. ENTs are more powerful and last longer.
    • Tidal Disruption Events (TDEs): TDEs also shred stars, but ENTs involve larger black holes and massive stars, making them rarer.
    • Fast X-ray Transients (FXTs): They are faint, brief X-ray bursts from trapped jets in supernovae. ENTs are brighter, multi-wavelength, and more energetic.

    Scientific Importance of ENTs:

    • Most Energetic Events: Represent the most powerful class of transients ever observed.
    • Black Hole Studies: Offer insights into supermassive black hole dynamics and their role in galactic evolution.
    • Early Universe Clues: Help probe massive stars soon after galaxy formation.
    • Future Observations: Key targets for next-generation telescopes like the Vera C. Rubin Observatory and Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope.
    [UPSC 2012] Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence for the continued expansion of the universe?

    1. Detection of microwaves in space

    2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space

    3. Movement of asteroids in space

    4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 * (b) 2 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) None of the above.

     

  • How different are Supercomputers to normal computers?

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

    What is a Supercomputer?

    • Overview: A high-performance computing system capable of trillions to quintillions of calculations per second.
    • Parallel Computing: Uses thousands of processors working together instead of relying on a single fast processor.
    • Applications: Climate modelling, nuclear simulations, black hole research, drug discovery, and artificial intelligence training.
    • Performance Measure: FLOPs (floating-point operations per second); advanced machines now achieve exaflop levels (10¹⁸ calculations/sec).

    How Supercomputers Differ from Normal Computers

    • Speed: Laptops perform billions of FLOPs; supercomputers perform quintillions.
    • Parallelism: PCs use one or few processors; supercomputers employ thousands to millions of cores.
    • Structure: Built of interconnected nodes (processor + memory bundles) linked by ultra-fast networks.
    • Storage: Manage petabytes of data, unlike gigabytes/terabytes in personal devices.
    • Cooling & Power: Need specialised cooling (water/immersion) and consume electricity equal to a small town.
    • Usage: PCs run interactive apps; supercomputers run scheduled jobs remotely for scientists and researchers.

    India’s journey in Supercomputing:

    • Early Efforts: Began with C-DAC’s PARAM 8000 (1991) after Western import restrictions.
    • National Supercomputing Mission (2015): Jointly by DST & Ministry of Electronics and IT; implemented by C-DAC and IISc to build 70+ systems.
    • Major Systems (2025):
      • AIRAWAT-PSAI (C-DAC, Pune) – fastest in India (8.5 PF, global rank 136).
      • PARAM Siddhi-AI – global AI leader.
      • Pratyush (IITM, Pune) – weather & climate (3.76 PF).
      • Mihir (NCMRWF, Noida) – medium-range weather (2.57 PF).
      • PARAM Pravega (IISc, Bengaluru) – academic use (>3.3 PF).
    • Indigenous Push: PARAM Rudra (2024) with Indian servers and software stack.
    • Applications: Monsoon forecasting, Himalayan research, defence simulations, AI, drug design, materials science.
    • Current Capacity: 34+ supercomputers with ~35 petaflops; plans for exascale systems underway.
    [UPSC 2014] Param Padma, which was in the news recently, is:

    (a) a new Civilian Award instituted by the Government of India

    (b) the name of a supercomputer developed by India *

    (c) the name given to a proposed network of canals linking northern and southern rivers of India

    (d) a software programme to facilitate e-governance in Madhya Pradesh

     

  • Is it feasible to blend Isobutanol and Diesel? 

    Why in the News?

    The Union Transport Minister has announced that the Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) is studying the feasibility of blending Isobutanol with Diesel after ethanol–diesel blending attempts failed.

    About Isobutanol:

    • What is it: A four-carbon alcohol (C₄H₁₀O), clear, flammable, and traditionally used as a solvent in paints, coatings, and chemical industries.
    • Production: Derived either from petrochemical processes or by fermenting sugarcane, molasses, and grains with engineered microbes.
    • Fuel Properties:
      • Higher energy density than ethanol, closer to diesel.
      • Lower hygroscopicity (absorbs less water), reducing rust and corrosion in engines and pipelines.
      • Higher flash point than ethanol, making it safer for storage and transport.

    Isobutanol–Diesel Blending and Benefits:

    • Compatibility: Unlike ethanol, isobutanol blends well with diesel without extra chemicals.
    • Economic Feasibility: Can be produced in existing ethanol plants with minor changes.
    • Agricultural Support: Creates demand for sugarcane by-products, helping farmers and managing sugar surplus.
    • Energy Security: Reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels and saves foreign exchange.
    • Global First: Pilot studies may make India the first country to use isobutanol–diesel blends.

    Challenges and Risks:

    • Combustion Issues: Has a lower cetane number than diesel, causing poor combustion quality.
    • Engine Risks: Can trigger diesel knock (uneven burning, power loss, engine damage).
    • Mixing Limitations: Blending challenges exist but can be partly solved with biodiesel addition.
    • Cost Factor: Requires additives to restore cetane number, increasing costs.
    • Blending Limit: Experts suggest ≤10% blending to avoid harm.
    • Pilot Phase: Testing will take ~18 months before possible large-scale adoption.
    [UPSC 2020] With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements:

    1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.

    2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.

    3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.

    How many of the above statements are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None