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GS Paper: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

  • Why you should care about Mapping of the Fruit Fly’s Brain?

    Why in the News?

    Researcher have successfully mapped the entire brain of an adult fruit fly, marking the first time researchers have created such a detailed map of an adult animal’s brain.

    How Was the Fruit Fly Brain Mapped?

    • The process of mapping Fruit Flies (Drosophila melanogaster) brain began in 2013.
    • Scientists dunked the brain of an adult fruit fly in a chemical bath, hardening it into a solid block.
    • This process involved 7,050 sections of the brain and produced 21 million photos to map the entire brain.
    • The first high-resolution image of the brain was created more than a decade after the work started.

    Key findings

    • Scientists identified more than 50 million connections between 139,000 neurons (brain nerve cells).
    • They classified the cells into 8,453 distinct types, making it the largest catalogue of cell types in any brain.
    • The research gave insights into how different types of cells function and how the fruit fly’s eyes process motion and color.
    • A group of “hub neurons” was discovered, which may help speed up information flow.

    Significance of the Work

    • Although the human brain is more complex, the logic of how neurons communicate is similar between fruit flies and humans.
    • Fruit flies are a valuable model system for neuroscience. Their brains solve many of the same problems that human brains do.
    • It could help in understanding and treat mental health conditions like Parkinson’s and depression.
    • The mapping of the fruit fly’s brain raises hopes that scientists will eventually be able to map the entire human brain.

  • What are Psychedelic Drugs?

    Why in the News?

    Researchers from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in collaboration with researchers from Cornell, Yale, and Columbia has uncovered how a psychedelic drug interacts with the brain to alleviate anxiety.

    About Psychedelic Drugs

    • Psychedelic drugs are a class of psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes. 
    • These drugs often induce hallucinations, altered states of consciousness, and enhanced sensory experiences.
    • They are typically associated with spiritual experiences and have historically been linked with counterculture movements, but they are now being studied for their potential in medical therapies.
    • Examples of Psychedelic Drugs:
      • LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide): Known for causing intense visual hallucinations and altering thoughts, it is one of the most potent psychedelics.
      • Psilocybin: The active compound found in magic mushrooms, known for creating visual and auditory hallucinations, as well as a deep sense of connection to the environment.
      • MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): Often associated with recreational use, but is also being researched for its therapeutic potential, especially in treating PTSD.
      • DMT (Dimethyltryptamine): Produces powerful, short-lived hallucinatory experiences, sometimes referred to as the “spirit molecule.”
      • Mescaline: Found in the peyote cactus, mescaline induces hallucinations and altered states of reality.

    How do they work?

    Psychedelics primarily affect the brain by interacting with the serotonin system, a network of neurotransmitters involved in regulating mood, perception, and cognition.

    • Serotonin Receptors: Psychedelics like LSD and psilocybin bind to 5-HT2A receptors, a type of serotonin receptor. This interaction leads to altered perception, enhanced mood, and hallucinations.
    • Brain Connectivity: They increase communication between different regions of the brain, breaking down normal patterns of activity. This leads to heightened creativity, altered sensory experiences, and a sense of connectedness.

    How Psychedelics hold promise for treating Anxiety and Depression?

    • Resetting Neural Circuits: Psychedelics may “reset” dysfunctional brain circuits, helping treat mood disorders.
    • Reduced Anxiety: They reduce overthinking by dampening activity in the brain’s default mode network.
    • Emotional Release: Patients experience emotional breakthroughs during psychedelic therapy sessions.
    • Neuroplasticity: Psychedelics may promote adaptive brain connections, aiding in recovery from chronic stress and depression.
    PYQ:

    [2018] India’s proximity to two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What countermeasures should be taken to prevent the same? (250 Words, 15 Marks)

  • Fluorescent Nano-Diamonds (FND)

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at Purdue University have figured out how to levitate and spin Fluorescent Nanodiamonds (FNDs) in a vacuum.

    What are FNDs?

    • Fluorescent Nanodiamonds (FNDs) are stable, non-toxic carbon nanoparticles that emit consistent fluorescence, have a lifespan over 10 nanoseconds, and can be levitated and spun for advanced quantum research applications.

    What are their Applications?

    • Medical Diagnostics: FNDs are used for high-resolution imaging and tracking cells over extended periods due to their non-toxic nature.
    • Temperature Sensing: FNDs can measure temperatures at the microscale, making them useful for scientific experiments.
    • Correlative Microscopy: Their fluorescent properties make them ideal for combining different types of imaging techniques.
    • Sensor Technologies: Due to their sensitivity to acceleration and electric fields, FNDs can be used in industry sensors and gyroscopes for rotation sensing.
    • Quantum Computing: FNDs doped with nitrogen can be used for quantum superposition experiments and future quantum computing applications.

    PYQ:

    [2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services

    (b) Quantum Computing

    (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies

    (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

  • BRCA Testing

    Why in the News?

    Angelina Jolie’s case highlighted hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) after she underwent preventive surgeries due to a BRCA1 gene mutation.

    What is BRCA Testing?

    • BRCA testing is a genetic test that looks for mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes.
    • These genes normally help repair DNA, but when they are mutated, they increase a person’s risk of developing certain cancers, particularly breast and ovarian cancers.
    • BRCA testing identifies whether a person has inherited these mutations, which can lead to Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (HBOC) and other cancers.
    • The test is done using a blood or saliva sample, which is collected and sent to a laboratory for analysis.
    • In the lab, next-generation DNA sequencing or other genetic analysis methods are used to examine the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes for harmful mutations.
    • The test results can show whether a person has inherited a harmful mutation in these genes.
      • If the result is positive, it means they are at a higher risk for developing certain cancers.

    Issues with BRCA Testing

    • BRCA testing in India is expensive, costing between ₹15,000 to ₹30,000, which makes it unaffordable for many, particularly in lower-income populations.
    • Testing is often only offered to individuals with a family history of cancer, which misses about 50% of people who may have the mutations but no known family history.

    Significance for India

    • Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in India, accounting for 27% of all cancer cases.
    • Women with BRCA mutations have up to a 72% risk of developing breast cancer.
      • Early identification allows for preventive measures, such as regular screenings or surgeries, which can reduce cancer incidence by up to 100%.
    • By increasing access to population-wide BRCA testing, India can improve early detection and reduce the burden of cancer on its healthcare system.
      • Early identification can also lower treatment costs and improve outcomes.

    PYQ:

    [2019] ‘RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?

    1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.
    2. It can be used in developing therapies for the treatment of cancer.
    3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.
    4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1, 2 and 4

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 3

    (d) 1 and 4 only

  • Neutrino Fog

    Why in the News?

    The LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) experiment revealed that as we continue to push the boundaries of dark matter detection, the issue of neutrino fog becomes increasingly significant.

    What is the LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) Experiment?

    • The LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) experiment is a cutting-edge dark matter detection project located deep underground at the Sanford Underground Research Facility in South Dakota, USA.
    • It is one of the most sensitive experiments in the world designed to detect dark matter particles, which are believed to make up about 85% of the matter in the universe but have not yet been directly observed.
    • The heart of the LZ experiment is a tank filled with 10 tonnes of liquid xenon, a very dense and pure material.
    • The idea is that if a dark matter particle collides with a xenon atom, it will produce a tiny burst of light and free electrons.
    • These interactions are then detected by sensitive equipment surrounding the xenon.
    • The experiment is located 1.5 km below the Earth’s surface.

    What is Neutrino Fog?

    • Neutrinos, often referred to as “ghost particles,” are subatomic particles with nearly zero mass and no electric charge. 
    • “Neutrino Fog” refers to the interference caused by neutrinos—subatomic particles that rarely interact with matter—in dark matter detection experiments.
    • Neutrinos are produced naturally in the Sun’s core, supernovae, and even Earth’s atmosphere.
    • Though they pass through most matter undetected, their weak interactions can cause small disturbances in highly sensitive detectors.
    • As dark matter detectors become larger and more sensitive, they are more likely to detect neutrinos, leading to a “fog” of signals that can obscure or mimic potential dark matter interactions.

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.

    2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter

    3. It is buried deep in the ice.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

  • Hepatitis E Virus (HEV)

    Why in the News?

    Recent research indicates that pigs may act as a transmission vehicle for a strain of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) commonly found in rats, known as Rocahepevirus ratti, or rat HEV.

    Role of Pigs in Transmission

    • HEV Reservoir: Pigs naturally carry hepatitis E virus (HEV), particularly strains that can infect humans.
    • Transmission via Pork: Humans can contract HEV by consuming raw or undercooked pork from infected pigs.
    • Environmental Contamination: Infected pigs shed HEV in faeces, contaminating the environment and water sources, potentially spreading the virus to humans.
      • Poor sanitation in pig farms facilitates HEV transmission between pigs and increases the risk of human infection through the food chain.
    • Cross-Species Transmission: Pigs may also act as intermediaries for rat HEV, transmitting the virus from rats to humans in farm environments.

    About Hepatitis E Virus (HEV):

    • Hepatitis E is caused by the Hepatitis E Virus (HEV), which is a positive-sense, single-stranded, non-enveloped RNA virus.
    • HEV is classified under the family Hepeviridae, genus Orthohepevirus.
    • It was first identified during an outbreak among Soviet soldiers in Afghanistan in 1983.
    • The earliest well-documented HEV epidemic occurred in New Delhi, India, in 1955, retrospectively identified as HEV.
    • Transmission:
      • The primary route of transmission is fecal-oral, especially through contaminated water and food.
      • Zoonotic transmission is possible with genotypes 3 and 4, commonly spread through undercooked meat or direct animal contact.
    • Symptoms:
      • Jaundice, nausea, fatigue, and elevated liver enzymes.
      • Severe cases can lead to liver failure, especially in pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals.
    • Prevention and Cure:
      • A vaccine, HEV 239, is approved for use in China, but no vaccine is widely available or approved in most countries, including the United States.
      • There is no specific antiviral treatment for acute HEV.
      • Prevention relies on improved sanitation, safe drinking water, and proper food handling.

    PYQ:

    [2019] Which one of the following statements is not correct?

    (a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.

    (b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.

    (c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more than those infected with HIV.

    (d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.

  • Findings based on China’s Chang’e-5 Mission

    Why in the News?

    • Scientists long believed that volcanic activity on the moon ceased about a billion years ago.
      • However, a study based on China’s Chang’e-5 mission samples has questioned this belief with evidence suggesting the moon had active volcanoes as recently as 120 million years ago.

    Chang’e-5 Mission: Overview and Recent Findings

    • Chang’e-5 is a mission launched in November 2020 as part of the Chang’e lunar exploration program.
    • It was designed to:
      • Collect samples from the moon’s surface and bring them back to Earth for analysis.
      • Study the geology and mineral composition of the moon.
    • It successfully landed on the “Mons Rumker region”, a volcanic complex in the Oceanus Procellarum (the ‘Ocean of Storms’) area on the moon’s near side, and returned about 1.7 kg of lunar material to Earth in December 2020.

    Recent Findings Based on Chang’e-5 Mission

    • Recent studies of samples have revealed evidence of volcanic activity on the moon as recently as 116-135 million years ago.
      • It challenges the previous belief that the moon’s volcanic activity ceased about a billion years ago.
    • The analysis of lunar glass beads collected by Chang’e-5 has provided insights into both volcanic eruptions and asteroid impacts that shaped the moon’s surface.

    What are the Beads on the Moon?

    • Lunar glass beads are small, spherical or egg-shaped glass particles found on the moon’s surface.
    • These beads are formed in two main ways:
      • Volcanic Activity: During volcanic eruptions, molten lava fragments are thrown into the air, where they cool rapidly and form glass beads.
      • Impact Events: When asteroids or meteorites hit the moon’s surface, the intense pressure and heat melt the surface material. The molten material cools quickly, forming glass beads as it lands back on the surface.
    • These beads are important because they:
      • Provide clues about the moon’s geological history.
      • Help scientists determine the age of volcanic eruptions.
      • Offer insights into the formation of the moon’s surface and its volcanic and impact events.

    Key characteristics of Lunar Glass Beads

    • Composition: These beads are primarily made of silicon, magnesium, and iron, with trace amounts of other elements such as potassium, titanium, and uranium.
    • Volcanic vs. Impact Beads: Volcanic glass beads tend to be more uniform, while impact beads may show fractures or deformations caused by high-energy impacts. Volcanic beads often contain more volatile elements like sulphur, which are released during eruptions.

    PYQ:

    [2012] What do you understand by the term Aitken basin?

    (a) It is a desert in the southern Chile which is known to be the only location on earth where no rainfall takes place.

    (b) It is an impact crater on the far side of the Moon.

    (c) It is a Pacific coast basin, which is known to house large amounts of oil and gas.

    (d) It is a deep hyper saline anoxic basin where no aquatic animals are found.

  • How Starlink satellites are ‘blinding’ astronomers?

    Why in the News?

    Starlink satellites, operated by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, are causing issues for astronomers by disrupting both optical and radio astronomy due to unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR).

    What is a Starlink Satellite?

    • Starlink satellites are part of a network created by Elon Musk’s SpaceX to provide high-speed internet to remote areas around the world.
    • The network, known as a satellite constellation, currently includes more than 6,300 satellites orbiting Earth at around 550 km altitude.
    • These satellites aim to offer internet connectivity to places that would otherwise lack access, especially in rural or underserved regions.

    Why Radio Astronomy matters?

    • Radio astronomy is a branch of astronomy that studies celestial objects using radio frequencies instead of visible light.
    • Radio telescopes detect radio waves, which are longer than light waves, emitted by objects in space such as stars, galaxies, and even black holes.
    • Radio astronomy is important because it helps scientists study the universe beyond what can be seen with optical telescopes.
    • Radio noise from sources like satellites can interfere with these observations, making it difficult for astronomers to collect data, similar to how bright lights can obscure faint stars.

    What Starlink does to Space Communications?

    • Starlink satellites are designed to improve global internet access, especially in hard-to-reach places, by transmitting signals from space.
    • However, these satellites also emit unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR), which causes radio noise that disrupts radio astronomy observations.
    • The situation may worsen as more satellites are launched — some estimates suggest 100,000 satellites could be orbiting Earth by 2030.
    • There are currently no regulations controlling how much radio pollution these satellites can emit, making it harder for astronomers to mitigate the impact on their work.

    PYQ:

    [2011] A layer in the Earth s atmosphere called Ionosphere facilitates radio communication. Why?

    1. The presence of ozone causes the reflection of radio waves to Earth.

    2. Radio waves have a very long wavelength.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 Only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

    Why in the News?

    In 2019, MRSA caused over 100,000 deaths, and although vancomycin has been the main treatment for 40 years, a new study shows it may not stay effective for long.

    About Vancomycin

    • Vancomycin is an antibiotic that has been a cornerstone in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections for over 40 years.
    • It is a glycopeptide antibiotic that works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, making it particularly effective against gram-positive bacteria like MRSA.
    • It has remained effective against MRSA due to its ability to target bacteria that have become resistant to other antibiotics like methicillin.
    • For decades, vancomycin has been the first-line treatment for severe MRSA infections, such as those affecting the bloodstream, heart, bones, and lungs.

    How Vancomycin is losing its effectiveness against MRSA?

    MRSA rarely develops resistance to vancomycin, but when it does, it leads to the emergence of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA).

    • Resistance Mechanism: When S. aureus acquires the vanA operon, a gene cluster responsible for vancomycin resistance, it can resist the antibiotic. However, this resistance usually comes with a fitness cost—the bacteria tend to grow slower, making them less virulent.
    • Fitness Compensation: Recent research shows that S. aureus can evolve to overcome this fitness cost, allowing VRSA to grow faster and remain resistant even in the absence of vancomycin. This adaptation means the bacteria are less likely to lose their resistance and can spread more easily.
    • Mutations: The study found that additional mutations in the VRSA strains exposed to vancomycin helped the bacteria adapt and maintain resistance. These mutations made the bacteria more fit, ensuring they could thrive even in the presence of vancomycin.
    • Diminishing Options: As VRSA continues to adapt, vancomycin may no longer be reliable for treating MRSA infections. This raises concerns about the long-term viability of the antibiotic, prompting the need for new treatment strategies.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

  • Bio-RIDE Scheme

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has approved the “Biotechnology Research Innovation and Entrepreneurship Development (Bio-RIDE) scheme” to support cutting-edge research and development in biotechnology.

    About Bio-RIDE Scheme

    Details
    Objective To support cutting-edge research, bio-entrepreneurship, and bio-manufacturing in biotechnology.
    Total Outlay ₹9,197 crore for the 15th Finance Commission period (2021-22 to 2025-26).
    Components
    • Merges Biotechnology Research and Development (R&D) and Industrial & Entrepreneurship Development (I&ED).
    • Introduces Bio-manufacturing and Bio-foundry as new components.
    Key Aims
    • Fostering Innovation: Promote bio-entrepreneurship and strengthen India’s position in biotechnology.
    • Bridging Gaps: Accelerate research and product development.
    Implementation Focus
    • Promoting Bio-Entrepreneurship: Seed funding, incubation, mentorship for startups.
    • Advancing Innovation: Grants for research in synthetic biology, bio-pharma, and bio-plastics.
    Focus Areas
    • Extramural Funding for research in agriculture, healthcare, bioenergy, and environmental sustainability.
    • Nurturing human resources in biotechnology.
    Industry-Academia Collaboration Synergies between academic institutions and industry to accelerate commercialization of bio-based products.
    Significance
    • Enhances bio-innovation and supports sustainable development.
    • Contributes to achieving green goals and global leadership in biotechnology.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] Atal Innovation Mission is set up under the

    (a) Department of Science and Technology

    (b) Ministry of Labour and Employment

    (c) NITI Aayog

    (d) Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship