Mains Ready By December. Smash Mains & Smash PYQ Admissions Open
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

GS Paper: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

  • Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

    Why in the News?

    The Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)—Kerala’s State bird and a symbol of forest biodiversity—was spotted far outside its usual habitat.

    Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

    About the Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)

    • Overview: The Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) is the largest hornbill species found in India.
    • Attributes: It is known for its striking yellow casque on the upper mandible, which is hollow and used in vocalisation and courtship.
    • Official Recognition: It is the State Bird of Kerala (as well as Arunachal Pradesh) and is revered in many indigenous cultures for its majestic appearance.
    • Conservation Status: It is listed as Endangered by the IUCN and is protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Habitat: It primarily inhabit evergreen and moist deciduous forests, especially in the Western Ghats, the Himalayan foothills, and Northeast India.
    • Prey Behaviour: They are frugivorous, feeding mainly on figs and other forest fruits, but they may occasionally consume small mammals, birds, and insects.
    • Ecological Significance:  They are known as ‘forest engineers’ or ‘farmers of the forest’, they play a key role in seed dispersal of tropical trees, indicating the health and balance of their forest ecosystems.
    [UPSC 2016] In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? Options: (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats *

     

  • Rising seas, shifting lives and a test of democratic values

    Why in the News?

    India is seeing a worrying rise in people being forced to leave their homes due to climate change along its coasts, revealing serious gaps in how the country manages the environment and supports affected communities.

    What are the socio-economic impacts of coastal climate change?

    • Displacement of Coastal Communities: Rising sea levels, saltwater intrusion, and erosion force people from traditional coastal villages to resettlement colonies. Eg: In Satabhaya, Odisha, entire villages have been submerged, displacing residents with little access to sustainable livelihoods.
    • Loss of Traditional Livelihoods: Coastal degradation affects fishing and agriculture, disrupting long-standing economic systems. Eg: In Honnavar, Karnataka, fishing communities face livelihood loss due to mangrove destruction and tourism development.
    • Forced Migration to Urban Informal Sectors: Displaced people migrate to cities and enter unprotected labour markets, often in exploitative conditions. Eg: Many end up as construction or brick kiln workers in cities like Mumbai or Chennai, without labour rights.
    • Labour Exploitation and Gender Vulnerability: Migrants, especially women, face debt bondage, abuse, and trafficking due to informal employment and lack of legal safeguards. Eg: Displaced women entering domestic work are underpaid and vulnerable to exploitation.
    • Social Inequality and Lack of Legal Protection: The absence of targeted legal frameworks leads to exclusion from welfare schemes and labour protections, worsening socio-economic inequality. Eg: Existing laws like the BOCW Act, 1996, do not cover climate migrants, leaving them unprotected.

    How does climate-induced displacement test India’s democratic values?

    • Right to Life and Dignity (Article 21): Climate displacement challenges the constitutional guarantee of life with dignity, as displaced communities often lack shelter, healthcare, and livelihood.
    • Denial of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (Article 19(1)(a)): Many infrastructure and tourism projects along the coast proceed without consulting local communities, violating their freedom of expression and participation in governance.
    • Suppression of Protest and Association (Article 19(1)(b) and 19(1)(c)): Environmental defenders and activists resisting unjust displacement face police action, surveillance, and criminalisation, undermining their freedom to protest and form associations.

    Why is a legal framework for climate migrants essential?

    • To Recognise and Protect the Rights of the Displaced: Climate migrants often lose access to housing, work, and basic services. A legal framework ensures their right to life and dignity is upheld under Article 21 of the Constitution. Eg: Villagers displaced from Satabhaya, Odisha, lack legal recognition as climate migrants, preventing access to structured rehabilitation.
    • To Fill Gaps in Existing Laws and Policies: Current laws like the Disaster Management Act, 2005 and CRZ Notification, 2019 focus on emergency response or environmental regulation, not long-term rehabilitation or labour rights. Eg: The NAPCC identifies vulnerability but has no mechanism to integrate displaced people into labour or housing policies.
    • To Prevent Labour Exploitation and Ensure Social Justice: Without legal safeguards, climate migrants, especially in urban informal sectors, face wage theft, abuse, and gendered violence. Eg: Migrants working in brick kilns or as domestic workers in cities remain outside labour codes, exposing them to exploitation.

    What is the role of local movements in protecting coastal communities?

    • Grassroots Resistance Against Destructive Projects: Local movements mobilize communities to protest against unsustainable infrastructure and industrial projects that threaten coastal ecosystems. Eg: The Save Satabhaya campaign in Odisha resisted sea-erosion-driven displacement and demanded proper rehabilitation.
    • Advocacy for Environmental Justice and Rights: These movements highlight environmental injustices, defend the livelihoods of traditional communities, and demand informed consent and legal protection. Eg: Pattuvam Mangrove Protection Movement.
    • Challenging Development Narratives and Policy Gaps: Local struggles question top-down development policies, push for sustainable alternatives, and expose policy loopholes that ignore climate and social impacts. Eg: Protests against the Adani port expansion at Ennore Creek, Tamil Nadu.

    Which reforms can ensure rights-based climate migration policies? (Way forward)

    • Legal Recognition of Climate Migrants: Integrate climate-induced displacement into national migration and disaster policies to ensure affected individuals are officially recognized and protected under law.
    • Labour Code Reforms for Informal Workers: Amend existing labour laws to include climate migrants, especially those in vulnerable sectors like construction and domestic work, ensuring fair wages, social security, and workplace protections.
    • Participatory Coastal Zone Management: Redesign Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules to prioritize ecological sustainability and the rights of local communities, with mandatory community consent before approving commercial projects.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] What is sea surface temperature rise? How does it affect the formation of tropical cyclones?

    Linkage: The article highlights “rising seas, saltwater intrusion” and “coastal degradation” as impacts of climate change. This question directly relates to a key oceanic phenomenon influenced by climate change and its effect on extreme weather events like cyclones.

  • Species in news: Garcinia kusumae

    Why in the News?

    Researchers in Assam have discovered a new tree species, Garcinia kusumae, locally called thoikora, adding to the Garcinia genus in a notable botanical find.

    About Garcinia kusumae:

    • Species Identity: Garcinia kusumae is a newly discovered evergreen tree species that is endemic to Assam, India.
    • Genus and Local Name: It belongs to the Garcinia genus, locally called thoikora in Assamese.
    • Discovery: It was discovered in 2024 by Jatindra Sarma, during a field survey in Bamunbari, Baksa district.
    • Botanical Traits: It is dioecious, grows up to 18 metres, flowers between February and April, and fruits between May and June.
    • Distinct Features: It differs from similar species by having up to 15 staminate flowers per fascicle, fewer stamens, and blackish resinous berries.
    • Ethnobotanical Uses: Its fruit is used in sherbet, fish curries, and for diabetes and dysentery remedies; the seed aril is eaten raw with condiments.

    What is the Garcinia Genus?

    • Taxonomy: Garcinia is the largest genus in the Clusiaceae family, comprising trees and shrubs.
    • Geographical Spread: It is found in tropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australasia, especially in rainforests.
    • Notable Characteristics: The genus is known for floral diversity, medicinal value, and culinary applications.
    • Presence in India: India hosts 33 species and 7 varieties of Garcinia, with Assam having 12 species and 3 varieties.
    • Famous Species: Commonly known species include Garcinia indica (kokum), Garcinia cowa, and Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen).
    • Utility and Significance: It is important for ethnobotanical uses, rural livelihoods, and climate-resilient forestry.
    • Traditional Practices: Several species are used in traditional food, medicine, and rituals.
    [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.

    In which part of India has it been discovered?

    Options: (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast

     

  • New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG)

    Why in the News?

    With focus shifting to COP30, climate finance is in the spotlight as the Fourth International Financing for Development Conference (FfD4) works to finalise the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) — a more ambitious target to replace the unmet $100 billion annual pledge.

    About New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG):

    • Overview: It is a new global climate finance target under negotiation to replace the unmet $100 billion pledge made by developed countries in 2009.
    • Basis: It is being framed through the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).
    • Minimum Starting Point: The goal will begin at a minimum of $100 billion per year, with future revisions based on real needs of developing nations.
    • Areas to be Covered: NCQG supports mitigation, adaptation, and resilience, with an explicit focus on the needs of developing countries.

    How it differs from earlier Pledge?

    • From Political to Need-Based: The earlier $100 billion was a political promise, while NCQG is a data-driven, needs-based goal.
    • Backed by National Priorities: Funding estimates will use developing countries’ own assessments and climate plans.
    • Greater Transparency and Trust: NCQG seeks to rebuild trust by addressing the trust deficit from past failures and improving accountability.

    True Scale of Climate Finance Needs:

    • Requirement: As per UNFCCC (2021), developing countries may need $6 trillion/year by 2030 to meet their climate goals.
    • Global Energy Transition Costs: A low-carbon global transition could need $4–6 trillion annually until 2050.
    • Renewable Energy Goals: Tripling renewables by 2030, agreed at COP28, may cost $30 trillion (IRENA).
    • India’s Stand: India has proposed an NCQG of $1 trillion/year, with a focus on grants and concessional finance, avoiding debt-heavy solutions.
    [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?

    Options: (a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB) (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) (c) The New Development Bank (NDB) (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

     

  • Places in News: Kariyachalli Island

    Why in the News?

    The Tamil Nadu government, with World Bank support, has launched a ₹50 crore restoration project for the sinking Kariyachalli Island.

    About Kariyachalli Island:

    • Overview: Kariyachalli Island is one of the 21 uninhabited islands in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park.
    • Geographic Location: It lies 4 km south of Sippikulam and 20 km northeast of Thoothukudi, between Rameswaram and Thoothukudi.
    • Made of Reef Sediments: The island is a low-lying landform made of reef debris, sand dunes, spits, and sandy plains.
    • Biodiversity Hotspot: Located in India’s coral reef zone, it supports 4,300+ marine species, including 132 coral types and the endangered dugong.
    • Ecological Importance: It has seagrass beds and coral reefs that provide food and shelter for marine life.
    • Natural Coastal Shield: Kariyachalli acts as a barrier against cyclones and tsunamis, helping protect the Tamil Nadu coast.
    • Historical Significance: It played a role in mitigating the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami impact.

    Why is it sinking?

    • Rapid Land Loss: The island has shrunk by over 70%, from 20.85 ha in 1969 to under 6 ha in 2024.
    • High Tide Erosion: At high tide, only 3.14 ha remains, per an IIT Madras (2025) study.
    • Wave and Sediment Pressure: Wave action, sediment loss, and lack of natural shoreline defense are accelerating erosion.
    • Climate Change Impact: Rising sea levels and coral bleaching have weakened the island’s natural protection.
    • Seagrass Depletion: Loss of seagrass beds has reduced the island’s ability to hold sediments and resist erosion.
    • Extreme Weather Events: Frequent cyclones and storms are making the island more vulnerable.
    • Future Risk: If the current trend continues, Kariyachalli may vanish by 2036.
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?

    Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves (b) Marakkanam Salt Pans (c) Naupada Swamp (d) Rann of Kutch*

     

  • Why Tigers keep migrating?

    Why in the News?

    India’s tiger population is undergoing a major eastward expansion, as young male tigers from central India’s source reserves (like Kanha and Bandhavgarh) disperse into eastern forests (Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal) in search of territory and mates.

    tiger

    Recent Incidents of Tiger Migration:

    • Bandhavgarh (MP) → Palamu (Jharkhand) → Purulia (WB) → Rescued and sent back to Palamu
    • Simlipal (Odisha) → Jharkhand → Lalgarh (WB) → Tiger killed by villagers
    • Tadoba (Maharashtra) → Simlipal (Odisha) → West Bengal → Zeenat the tigress translocated and dispersed

    Back2Basics: Royal Bengal Tiger

    • Declared National Animal of India in 1972 by the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
    • Largest population in India; also found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. India harbours 75% of the world’s wild tigers.
    • Occupies habitats such as high mountains, mangrove swamps, grasslands, deciduous forests, evergreen, and shola forests.
    • Ecological Significance:
      • Flagship species: Essential for conservation efforts since it’s the topmost predator in food chain.
      • Umbrella species: Protecting tigers helps conserve other species (through food chain regulation).
    • Protection Status:
      • Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
      • IUCN Red List: Endangered.
      • CITES: Listed in Appendix I.
    • Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation initiative in India that was launched in 1973.

    Behavioural Traits of Tigers Influencing Dispersal:

    • Territorial Independence: Upon maturity, male tigers must leave their natal territory to find exclusive prey-rich zones and mates, triggering long-distance dispersal.
    • Gendered Dispersal:
      • Males are wanderers – they cover vast areas and often cross multiple states.
      • Females are philopatric – they stay close to their birthplace and are usually accepted by nearby relatives.
    • Source-Sink Dynamics:
      • Source forests (e.g. Kanha, Bandhavgarh) produce surplus tigers due to good prey and protection.
      • Sink forests (e.g. Palamu, Dalma) cannot sustain tiger populations without new immigrants.
    • Adaptive but Risk-Prone: Tigers are biologically wired to explore new habitats, even degraded ones, but often face food scarcity, isolation, and human conflict.
    • Prey Dependence and Conflict: In prey-deficient forests, floater tigers’ resort to livestock hunting, increasing the risk of human-tiger conflict.
    • Resilience and Colonisation Instinct: Despite setbacks, tigers attempt to colonise new areas, offering hope for species expansion if supported by proper conservation.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.

    2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

    3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only*  (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Groundwater crisis deepens in Karnataka’s hard rock terrain 

    Why in the News?

    In a recent study, researchers from WELL Labs in Chennai studied Aralumallige and Doddathumakuru gram panchayats in the Upper Arkavathy watershed near Bengaluru, and found a sharp drop in groundwater levels caused by intensive farming practices.

    What drives groundwater depletion in the Deccan Plateau?

    • Hard Rock Aquifers with Low Storage Capacity: The Deccan Plateau is underlain by basalt and granite (hard rock aquifers) that have limited porosity. These rely on fractures and weathered zones to store water, making them less efficient in holding groundwater. Eg: In Karnataka, 99% of the area depends on such aquifers, making sustainable storage difficult.
    • Deep Borewell Drilling Alters Natural Recharge: Borewells drilled into granite cause microfractures, allowing rainwater to bypass shallow aquifers and flow deep underground. This disrupts the natural recharge cycle and reduces groundwater retention.  
    • Water-Intensive Agriculture: Cultivation of vegetables, flowers, and exotic crops for urban markets like Bengaluru demands large volumes of groundwater. These crops are not suited to the dry, hard-rock geology of the region.  
    • Encroachment of Traditional Recharge Systems: Lakes and tanks, once used for groundwater recharge, are being encroached upon or neglected. Their discharge channels are blocked, eliminating natural recharge opportunities. Eg: The lake in Aralumallige (Karnataka), once a major recharge source, remained dry in 2022 despite heavy rainfall.

    Why is reliance on borewells unsustainable in rural Karnataka?

    • Rapid Groundwater Depletion and Borewell Failures: Continuous extraction through deep borewells causes the water table to drop, making it harder to access groundwater over time. Eg: In the Upper Arkavathy watershed, the average borewell depth increased from 183m to 321m in just two decades. Over 70% of drinking water wells failed within 10 years of construction.
    • High Financial Burden on Farmers and Panchayats: Drilling deeper borewells costs ₹4–5 lakh, often unaffordable for small farmers, with no guarantee of success. Free electricity for pumping increases electricity consumption and debt for gram panchayats. Eg: Panchayats face mounting electricity bills, diverting funds away from development works to cover power costs.
    • Disruption of Natural Recharge and Local Hydrology: Borewells alter subsurface geology, causing rainwater to bypass shallow aquifers, reducing natural recharge. Eg: In Aralumallige and Doddathumakuru, borewell drilling weakened long-term water retention, contributing to chronic scarcity despite seasonal rains.

    What is the socio-economic impact on local communities and governance?

    • Rising electricity debt: Free power for farmers fuels overuse, pushing gram panchayats into unsustainable debts as they divert development funds to pay power bills.
    • Borewell burden on small farmers: Drilling costs ₹4-5 lakh with no assurance of success, leading many farmers to lease land and migrate to cities.

    What are the issues related to groundwater in Indian?

    • Overexploitation and Depletion: Unregulated extraction of groundwater for agriculture and urban use has led to rapid depletion of water tables. Eg: In parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Karnataka (like Aralumallige), water tables have fallen by over 100 meters in two decades due to borewell dependence.
    • Poor Groundwater Quality: Contamination by nitrates, fluoride, and arsenic poses serious health risks, especially in rural areas. Eg: In Bihar and West Bengal, arsenic contamination affects drinking water; in Karnataka, nitrate levels often exceed safe limits (50 mg/l).
    • Inadequate Data and Poor Management: Lack of real-time monitoring, insufficient local-level data, and fragmented water governance hinder sustainable planning. Eg: Despite groundwater overuse, local panchayats often lack predictive tools to estimate borewell failure or manage recharge zones effectively.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    • Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): A nationwide water conservation campaign launched in 2019 to promote rainwater harvesting, recharge structures, and sustainable water use. Eg: In water-stressed blocks of states like Maharashtra and Rajasthan, the JSA promoted check dams and contour trenches to boost groundwater recharge.
    • Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal): A World Bank-assisted scheme launched in 2019 for sustainable groundwater management in 7 states. It focuses on community participation, water budgeting, and crop water use efficiency. Eg: In Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, water user associations have helped monitor and reduce groundwater extraction.
    • Groundwater Regulation by Central Groundwater Authority (CGWA): The CGWA regulates groundwater usage in over-exploited areas by mandating No Objection Certificates (NOCs) for industries and commercial users.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote Sustainable Farming Practices: Shift from water-intensive crops (like paddy, sugarcane) to less water-demanding crops suited to agro-climatic conditions.
    • Strengthen Local Water Governance: Empower Gram Panchayats to manage groundwater through community water budgeting, real-time monitoring, and local recharge efforts.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2019] Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the goods and services tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017.

    Linkage: The article talks about the GST replaced many older taxes like VAT and excise duty, helping create a single national market. Although GST collections have steadily grown—reaching ₹22.08 lakh crore in 2024–25—the revenue from tobacco (about ₹551 billion a year) is much less than the huge cost of tobacco-related health problems, which is ₹2,340 billion every year.

  • ZSI records 683 faunal discoveries in its 110th year

    Why in the News?

    The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) released Version 2.0 of the Checklist of Fauna of India, documenting 105,244 species and subspecies.

    Back2Basics: Zoological Survey of India

    • The ZSI was set up by British zoologist Thomas Nelson Annandale in 1916.
    • It is the premier taxonomic research organisation in India, based in Kolkata.
    • It was established to promote surveys, exploration and research leading to the advancement of our knowledge of various aspects of the exceptionally rich animal life of India.
    • The ZSI had its genesis as the Zoological Section of the Indian Museum at Calcutta in 1875.
    • Since its inception, the ZSI has been documenting the diversity and distribution of the fauna of India towards carrying out its mandate of conducting exploration-cum-taxonomic-research programmes.
    • The ZSI has published an extremely large amount of information on all animal taxa, from Protozoa to Mammalia.

    Key Findings About ZSI’s Work and Discoveries (2024–25):

    • Significant Animal Discoveries:
      • New Genus: Dravidoseps gouensis – a new genus of skink (lizard) from Western Ghats
      • New Species of Snakes: Anguiculus dicaprioi – named after actor Leonardo DiCaprio, belongs to the Colubridae family
      • Other Reptiles: 2 new genera and 37 new species of reptiles discovered
      • Amphibians: 5 new amphibian species, including frogs from northeastern and southern India
      • Other Invertebrates: Multiple new insect species, particularly among beetles, moths, flies, and bees
    • Highest representation among newly discovered species were insects, especially:
      • Coleoptera (beetles)
      • Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies)
      • Diptera (flies)
      • Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps)
    [2020] With reference to India’s Biodiversity, Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned minivet and White-throated redstart are:

    (a) Birds

    (b) Primates

    (c) Reptiles

    (d) Amphibians

     

  • New flowering plant named after Nyishi Tribe

    Why in the News?

    A new species of flowering plant, Begonia nyishiorum, has been discovered in the East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.

    New flowering plant named after Nyishi Tribe

    About Begonia nyishiorum:

    • Overview: Begonia nyishiorum is a recently identified flowering plant found in East Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh, and is endemic to this region.
    • Scientific Recognition: It was officially described in June 2025 in Novon, a peer-reviewed journal published by the Missouri Botanical Garden.
    • Feature: The species is notable for its crimson, fringed scales (indumentum) on light green petioles, a distinct trait among Asian begonias.
    • Habitat and Range: It thrives on moist, shaded mountain slopes between 1,500 and 3,000 metres in altitude.
    • Ecological Sensitivity: Known from only two forest locations, the plant is potentially vulnerable and warrants conservation attention.
    • Name Origin: The species name nyishiorum honours the Nyishi tribe, known for their traditional ecological stewardship of local forests.

    About the Nyishi Tribe:

    • Overview: The Nyishi are the largest ethnic group in Arunachal Pradesh, with a population of about 300,000.
    • Name Meaning: The word “Nyishi” combines “Nyi” (man) and “Shi” (being), signifying a civilised human in their language.
    • Linguistic Identity: Their language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family, although its origins remain debated among scholars.
    • Geographic Spread: They live in eight districts of Arunachal Pradesh (like East Kameng, Papum Pare, and Kurung Kumey) and parts of Assam.
    • Livelihood Practices: Their economy includes slash-and-burn farming, hunting, fishing, and handicrafts such as bamboo work and weaving.
    • Key Festivals: They celebrate Boori-Boot (Feb) for unity, Nyokum (Feb) for prosperity, and Longte (Apr) for protection from evil.
    • Social Structure: Nyishi society is patrilineal and clan-based, with no caste system or rigid social hierarchy.
    • Role of Women: Women are seen as symbols of peace and prosperity, and marriages involve reciprocal family exchanges that build community ties.
    [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.

    In which part of India has it been discovered?

    Options: (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast

     

  • Secondary Pollutants constitute up to third of PM2.5 Pollution

    Why in the News?

    A recent study by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) highlights that secondary pollutants, particularly ammonium sulphate, are responsible for nearly one-third of India’s PM2.5 pollution.

    What are Primary Air Pollutants?

    • Definition: Primary air pollutants are directly released into the atmosphere from specific sources like vehicles, coal plants, industries, and biomass burning.
    • Natural and Man-made Origins: They arise from both natural events, such as dust storms, and human activities like fuel combustion.
    • Key Examples:
      • Carbon monoxide (CO) – from incomplete fuel combustion in vehicles and stoves.
      • Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) – from burning sulphur-rich coal, especially in power plants.
      • Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) – from high-temperature fuel combustion in vehicles and factories.
      • Particulate Matter (PM) – includes soot, dust, smoke, and other visible particles.
      • Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) – released from fuel fumes and industrial solvents.
    • Impact: These pollutants are immediately harmful to health and easier to trace to their sources.

    About Secondary Air Pollutants:

    • Definition: Secondary pollutants form in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving primary pollutants and environmental agents like sunlight and water vapour.
    • Formation Factors: Their creation depends on weather, sunlight, and existing pollutants, making them more complex.
    • Key Examples:
      • Ammonium sulphate and nitrate – from SO₂ and NH₃ reacting in the air.
      • Ground-level ozone (O₃) – formed when NOₓ and VOCs react under sunlight.
      • Acid rain components – such as sulfuric and nitric acids.
      • Photochemical smog – a mix of toxic secondary pollutants in urban air.
    • Impact: They contribute heavily to PM2.5 pollution and have long-lasting, widespread effects.

    Highlights from CREA’s Study:

    • Ammonium Sulphate Share: This secondary pollutant accounts for 34% of India’s PM2.5, averaging 11.9 μg/m³ nationwide.
    • Source Link: It forms from SO₂ (mainly from coal plants) reacting with ammonia from fertilisers and waste.
    • FGD Compliance: Only 8% of India’s coal plants have installed flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) units, despite regulations.
    • High Exposure Zones: Within 10 km of coal plants, ammonium sulphate levels are 2.5 times higher than in distant areas.
    • NCAP City Impact: In 130 cities, it contributes 20–43% of PM2.5; in 114 cities, the share exceeds 30%.
    • Other Contributors: Ammonium nitrate and similar secondary compounds form up to 50% of PM2.5 in many places.
    • Policy Suggestions: The study urges rapid FGD rollout, fertiliser reform, and strict pollution control enforcement.
    [UPSC 2013] Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among-

    Options: (a) NO 2 , O 3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight * (b) CO 2 , O 2 , and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight (c) CO, CO 2 , and NO 2 at low temperature (d) high concentration of NO 2 , O 3 and CO in the evening