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Type: National Parks/WS

  • National Board for Wildlife clears the Panari hydropower project in the Panna Ranipur tiger corridor

    Why in the News

    The Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) recommended wildlife clearance for the 1,800 MW Panari Pumped Storage Hydropower Project in the Panna-Ranipur Tiger Corridor, despite concerns that it could fragment a critical wildlife corridor.

    How does a Pumped Storage Hydropower Project (PSH) work?

    • Uses two reservoirs at different elevations.
    • During low electricity demand, water is pumped to the upper reservoir.
    • During peak demand, water is released to generate electricity.
    • Acts as a grid-scale energy storage system for renewable energy.

    What is the Panna-Ranipur Tiger Corridor?

    • Connects Panna Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh) with Ranipur Tiger Reserve (Uttar Pradesh).
    • Facilitates movement of tigers, leopards, and sloth bears.
    • Ensures genetic exchange and healthy wildlife populations.
      • A wildlife corridor is a natural passage connecting fragmented habitats, enabling movement, migration, breeding, and genetic exchange among wildlife populations.

    Why was the Project Cleared?

    • NBWL Standing Committee approved it based on recommendations of:
      • National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
      • Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
    • Clearance is subject to mitigation measures.

    Concerns

    • Corridor fragmentation affecting wildlife movement.
    • Increased human-wildlife conflict.
    • Loss of habitat connectivity and genetic diversity.
    • Cumulative impacts of multiple infrastructure projects.

    Mitigation Measures

    • Construction of three 30-metre-wide wildlife overpasses.
    • Relocation of muck dumping and project facilities outside the corridor.
    • Realignment of project infrastructure to reduce habitat disturbance.

    Back2Basics: Panna Tiger Reserve

    1. Designation: Tiger reserve and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, in Madhya Pradesh.
    2. Location: Panna and Chhatarpur districts, on the Vindhyan ranges along the Ken River.
    3. Distinction: Site of a successful tiger reintroduction after its tiger population was lost around 2009.
    4. Linked project: Adjoins the Ken Betwa river linking project, India’s first interlinking of rivers.

    “[2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under ‘Critical Tiger Habitat’?
    (a) Corbett
    (b) Ranthambore
    (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam
    (d) Sunderbans

  • Supreme Court extends the 10 km mining buffer to all wetland conservation reserves

    Why in the News

    The Supreme Court clarified that its ban on mining within a 10 km radius of the Asan Conservation Reserve (a Ramsar Site) applies to all Wetland Conservation Reserves across India unless approved by the Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).

    What is a Conservation Reserve?

    • A protected area category created under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (through the 2002 Amendment).
    • Covers government-owned land adjacent to National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
    • Protects habitats and wildlife corridors with community participation.

    What is an Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ)?

    • A buffer area notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
    • Restricts activities such as mining, industries, and large-scale construction to reduce ecological impacts.

    Supreme Court Ruling

    • Extended the 10 km mining restriction to all Wetland Conservation Reserves.
    • Recognized wetlands as a distinct ecologically sensitive category.
    • Mining within the buffer requires approval from the NBWL Standing Committee and MoEFCC.

    Why is the Ruling Significant?

    • Protects wetlands from mining and habitat degradation.
    • Recognizes the importance of catchment areas for wetland health.
    • Ensures uniform protection for wetland conservation reserves across India.

    Challenges

    • Incomplete mapping and notification of wetlands.
    • Encroachment and land-use change.
    • Pollution and eutrophication.
    • Weak enforcement by State Wetland Authorities.
    • Development pressures from mining and infrastructure projects.

    Value Addition

    Ramsar Convention

    • International treaty for the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
    • Adopted in 1971 at Ramsar, Iran.
    • India became a Contracting Party in 1982.

    Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017

    • Regulate conservation and management of notified wetlands.
    • Implemented through State Wetland Authorities.

    Back2Basics

    National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)

    • Statutory body under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Chairperson: Prime Minister.
    • Standing Committee examines projects affecting protected areas.

    Asan Conservation Reserve

    • Location: Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
    • Ramsar Site: Since 2020 (Uttarakhand’s first Ramsar Site).
    • Formed by the Asan Barrage at the confluence of the Asan and Yamuna rivers.
    • Important wintering habitat for migratory birds.

    “[2019] Consider the following statements:
    1. Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India.
    2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of Ramsar Convention.
    3. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority.
    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • “Tigers Outside Tiger Reserves” initiative targets the 35 to 40% of India’s tigers living outside protected areas

    Why in the News

    The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change’s (MoEFCC) new “Tigers Outside Tiger Reserves” (TOTR) initiative addresses the 35 to 40% of India’s tiger population living outside formally protected areas. It is built on two pillars, conflict reduction and community coexistence, across 40 forest divisions in nine states.

    Pillars of the Tigers Outside Tiger Reserves (TOTR) initiative

    1. Conflict reduction: The first pillar focuses on reducing human-tiger conflict incidents in forest divisions where tigers range outside the boundaries of formally notified reserves.
    2. Community coexistence: The second pillar builds mechanisms for local communities to coexist with tigers present in shared, non-reserve landscapes, rather than treating their presence as purely a conservation enforcement problem.
    3. Coverage: The initiative spans 40 forest divisions across nine states, reflecting the geographic spread of India’s tiger population beyond reserve boundaries.

    Why does India need a policy specifically for tigers outside reserves?

    1. Population share at stake: With 35 to 40% of India’s tiger population living outside protected areas, conservation policy focused only on reserve boundaries misses a large share of the actual tiger population.
    2. Corridor dependence: Tigers outside reserves typically use forest corridors connecting reserves, and conflict in these corridors threatens the genetic connectivity between reserve populations.
    3. Land use pressure: Non-reserve forest divisions face agricultural and settlement pressure that formally protected reserves do not, making conflict management here structurally harder than inside a reserve.

    Conclusion

    1. The Tigers Outside Tiger Reserves initiative extends India’s tiger conservation focus beyond reserve boundaries to the corridors and shared landscapes where a large share of the tiger population actually lives. Its success will depend on whether conflict reduction and community coexistence measures can be sustained in areas without a reserve’s formal protection status.

    Back2Basics

    Conservation Status

    • IUCN Red List: Endangered (EN)
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I species (highest level of legal protection).
    • CITES: Appendix I.

    Tiger Reserves in India

    • Total Tiger Reserves: 58 (under the National Tiger Conservation Authority).
    • Largest Tiger Reserve: Nagarjunsagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve (Andhra Pradesh & Telangana).
    • Smallest Tiger Reserve: Bor Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra).
    • State with the most Tiger Reserves: Madhya Pradesh (9).
    • Latest Tiger Reserve: Madhav Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh), notified in 2025.

    Tiger Population

    • India’s tiger population increased from 1,411 (2006) to 3,682 (2022), reflecting the success of sustained conservation efforts under Project Tiger and landscape-based protection.
    • India is home to over 70% of the world’s wild tiger population, making it the global stronghold for tiger conservation.

    Project Tiger

    • Launched in 1973 by the Government of India to ensure a viable population of tigers in their natural habitats through habitat protection, anti-poaching measures, scientific monitoring, and community participation.

    National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

    • The NTCA is a statutory body established under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (through the 2006 amendment) under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • It formulates policies and standards for tiger conservation, oversees the management of Tiger Reserves, approves reserve notifications, and monitors implementation of Project Tiger across the country.

  • Ratle Hydroelectric Project Seeks Extension of Environmental Clearance  

    Why in the News?

    Ratle Hydroelectric Power Corporation Limited has sought an extension of Environmental Clearance (EC) for its 850 MW Ratle Hydroelectric Project on the Chenab River, citing delays due to litigation and COVID-19. The proposal is under appraisal by the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) of the Union Environment Ministry.

    About the Ratle Hydroelectric Project

    • Capacity: 850 MW
    • Location: Kishtwar district, Jammu and Kashmir
    • River basin: Indus Basin
    • Type of dam: Concrete gravity dam

    Environmental Clearance Timeline

    • Original EC granted: December 2012
    • Initial validity: Up to 2022
    • Extended validity for hydropower projects: Till December 11, 2025
    • Extension sought due to:
      • Court litigations between 2014–2021
      • COVID-19 disruption (April 2020 to March 2021)

    Current Legal Issues

    • Case pending before National Green Tribunal
    • Allegations of illegal muck dumping into the Chenab
    • Petition filed by residents of Thathri
    • Judgment reserved in December 2025

    Prelims Pointers

    • Ratle project is on the Chenab River
    • Falls under the Indus Basin
    • EC validity can exclude court stay and COVID periods
    • Joint venture led by NHPC
    • Under scrutiny of NGT
    [2009] The Dul Hasti Power Station is based on which one of the following rivers? 

    (a) Beas 

    (b) Chenab 

    (c) Ravi 

    (d) Sutlej

  • Army sets up three new garrisons near the Siliguri Corridor

    Why in the News?

    India has set up three new Army garrisons at Dhubri, Kishanganj, and Chopra to secure the vulnerable eastern frontier and protect the Siliguri Corridor amid instability in Bangladesh and rising Chinese activity.

    Army sets up three new garrisons near the Siliguri Corridor

    About Siliguri Corridor:

    • Overview: A narrow land strip connecting mainland India to the Northeast, popularly called the Chicken Neck due to its thin, vulnerable shape.
    • Dimensions: Roughly 60 km long and 17–22 km wide, making it one of India’s most strategically sensitive corridors.
    • Location: Lies in northern West Bengal, bordered by Nepal (west), Bangladesh (south), Bhutan (north), with China’s Chumbi Valley close to the tri-junction.
    • Link to Northeast: The only land route for supplying all eight northeastern states, carrying road, rail, fuel, food and military logistics (except limited Bangladesh transit routes).
    • Strategic Sensitivity: Its narrowness and proximity to the India–China–Bhutan tri-junction make it a potential chokepoint in conflict scenarios.
    • Military Importance: Acts as the primary logistical artery for moving Indian Army troops and equipment toward Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, especially during LAC tensions.
    • Security Challenges: Surrounded by multiple international borders, making it prone to illegal immigration, smuggling, cross-border crime, and potential external military pressure.
    • Economic Significance: Key route for trade with Nepal and Bhutan, and supports tourism to Darjeeling, Sikkim and Bhutan.

    About the New Eastern Garrison Deployments:

    • Purpose: Developed to address rising security risks due to political changes in Bangladesh, demographic pressures along the border, and China’s increasing activity near the tri-junction.
    • Locations:
      1. Lachit Borphukan Military Station, Dhubri (Assam)
      2. Forward base, Kishanganj (Bihar)
      3. Forward base, Chopra (West Bengal)
    • Operational Role: Enables continuous surveillance, rapid troop movement, and strengthens defence preparedness across the India–Bangladesh frontier.
    • Local Support: Assam facilitated quick setup of the Dhubri station, named after Ahom general Lachit Borphukan, symbolising regional identity and military determination.

    Drivers Behind the Reinforcement:

    • Regime Change in Bangladesh: Expected shifts in border behaviour, cross-border movement, and potential security spillovers.
    • Illegal Immigration Concerns: Union Home Ministry has flagged demographic changes in border districts linked to cross-border inflow.
    • China’s Expanding Influence:
      • Accelerated LAC military build-up in Arunachal Pradesh.
      • Growing ties with Pakistan and Bangladesh, including a trilateral meet in Kunming, raising regional security concerns.
    • Regional Military Activity: India has conducted major exercises like Poorvi Prachand Prahar and IAF flying displays in Assam to signal operational readiness.
    • Pakistan–Bangladesh Engagements: Recent visit of a Pakistan Navy ship to Chattogram (first since 1971) has added a fresh strategic dimension to India’s eastern security planning.

  • Senna spectabilis removed from 1,963 hectares of land in Mudumalai TR

    Why in the News?

    The Tamil Nadu Forest Department has successfully removed Senna spectabilis, a highly invasive tree species, from 1,963 hectares of the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR).

    Senna spectabilis removed from 1,963 hectares of land in Mudumalai TR

    Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

    • Location: Situated in Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu, at the tri-junction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka.
    • Area: Covers 321 sq. km, forming part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India’s first biosphere reserve.
    • Terrain: Undulating landscape ranging from 960–1266 m elevation.
    • Rivers: The Moyar River flows through the reserve, supporting rich biodiversity.
    • Vegetation: Includes evergreen, moist and dry deciduous forests, teak, bamboo, and grasslands (vayals).
    • Flora: Contains wild relatives of cultivated plants like rice, turmeric, and ginger.
    • Fauna: Home to tigers, elephants, gaurs, sambars, leopards, blackbucks, wild dogs, and 8% of India’s bird species.
    • Boundaries: Shares borders with Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Karnataka) and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala).
    • Cultural Note: The Oscar-winning documentary “The Elephant Whisperers” was filmed at the Theppakadu Elephant Camp inside MTR.

    About Senna spectabilis:

    • Origin: A fast-growing deciduous tree native to tropical America, introduced in India as an ornamental and shade plant.
    • Issues: Reaches 15–20 metres, produces thousands of seeds annually, spreading rapidly.
    • Invasive Impact: Dense canopy suppresses native trees and grasses, causes food scarcity for herbivores, and reduces biodiversity.
    • IUCN Status: Listed as ‘Least Concern’ but ecologically harmful in Indian forests.

    How was the eradication achieved?

    • Method: Threefold strategy- debarking mature trees, uprooting saplings with weed pullers, and mechanically clearing seedlings.
    • Duration: Large trees dry up in about 18 months after debarking.
    • Post-Removal Use: Felled trees used for paper production.
    • Objective: Restore native flora, improve wildlife forage, and ensure long-term ecosystem recovery.
    [UPSC 2018] Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often mentioned in news?

    Options: (a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics.

    (b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows. *

    (c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides.

    (d) None of the above.

     

  • Bihar’s Gogabeel Lake declared India’s 94th Ramsar Site

    Why in the News?

    Gogabeel Lake, located in Katihar district, Bihar, has been officially designated as India’s 94th Ramsar Site and sixth from Bihar.

    Bihar's Gogabeel Lake declared India's 94th Ramsar Site

    About Gogabeel Lake:

    • Overview: An oxbow lake situated in Katihar district, Bihar, within the Trans-Gangetic Plains, formed between the Ganga and Mahananda rivers.
    • Hydrological Nature: Connects to both rivers during monsoon floods, functioning as a dynamic floodplain wetland.
    • Legal Status: Declared Bihar’s first community reserve, co-managed by local communities and forest authorities.
    • Ecological Significance: Serves as a key habitat for migratory birds and a breeding site for vulnerable species such as the Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, and Smooth-coated Otter.
    • Biodiversity: Hosts 90+ bird species (including 30 migratory), wetland flora, and fish species like Helicopter Catfish (Wallago attu).
    • Ecosystem Services: Provides flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and climate regulation, contributing to the Gangetic ecosystem’s stability.
    • Cultural Linkages: Integral to local festivals like Sirva, Adra, and Chhath, symbolising people–nature harmony in rural Bihar.

  • Meghalaya’s Umngot River turns Muddy

    Why in the News?

    The Umngot River, celebrated for its crystal-clear waters and tourist appeal at Dawki and Shnongpdeng, has turned murky and opaque.

    Meghalaya’s Umngot River turns Muddy

    About Umngot River:

    • Location: Flows through West Jaintia Hills district, Meghalaya, close to the India–Bangladesh border.
    • Origin: Arises from the Jaintia Hills, traversing limestone-rich terrain that naturally filters impurities and maintains clarity.
    • Distinct Appearance: Known for its crystal-clear waters that create the illusion of boats floating on air, earning it global recognition.
    • Length & Course: Flows southward to Dawki town, where it merges with Bangladesh’s Piyain River.
    • Ecological Features: Possesses high dissolved oxygen levels, preventing algal growth and supporting diverse aquatic biodiversity.
    • Tourism Hub: Popular at Dawki and Shnongpdeng for boating, fishing, camping, and eco-tourism, drawing thousands of visitors annually.
    • Infrastructure Landmark: The Dawki Suspension Bridge (1932) is a heritage structure spanning the river and serving as a trade route link.
    • Economic Role: Sustains cross-border trade, local fishing, and tourism-driven livelihoods vital to Meghalaya’s rural economy.
    • Cultural Boundary: Serves as a natural divider between Ri Pnar (Jaintia Hills) and Hima Khyrim (Khasi Hills).

    Cause of Discoloration:

    • Primary Cause: Linked to Shillong–Dawki road-widening project upgrading it to a two-lane highway with a 400 m bridge at Dawki.
    • Pollution Source: Hill-cutting, excavation, and soil dumping along sites near Umtyngar and Dawki caused heavy sediment runoff.
    • Inspection Findings: The Meghalaya State Pollution Control Board (MSPCB) detected uncontained debris and sliding soil entering the river, reducing water transparency.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following rivers:

    1. Brahmani 2. Nagavali 3. Subarnarekha 4. Vamsadhara

    Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4* (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

     

  • Pampadum Shola National Park

    Why in the News?

    At Pampadum Shola National Park, invasive Australian wattles are being removed and native grasslands restored naturally leading streams to flow again and biodiversity to rejuvenate.

    About Pampadum Shola National Park:

    • Location: Situated in Idukki district, Kerala, near the Tamil Nadu border, about 35 km from Munnar.
    • Area & Status: Smallest NP in Kerala (11.753 sq km); declared in 2003 to protect the shola–grassland ecosystem.
    • Landscape: Lies at 1,600–2,400 m elevation within the Anamalai–High Range landscape, part of the Anamudi Sub-cluster (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
    • Hydrology: Serves as a watershed for the Pambar and Vaigai Rivers, vital to Tamil Nadu’s plains.
    • Flora & Fauna: Features evergreen forests, moist deciduous patches, and montane grasslands; key species include Nilgiri Marten, Kerala Laughing Thrush, Nilgiri Tahr, and Indian Giant Squirrel.
    • Restoration Efforts: Ecological restoration (2020–2024) underway, removal of invasive Australian wattles (Acacia mearnsii) has revived native grasslands and streams.
    • Climate & Tourism: Experiences cool, misty weather (6°C–30°C) with dual monsoons; regulated trekking under Forest Department supervision.

    What are Shola Forests?

    • Overview: Tropical montane evergreen forests found above 1,600 m in the Western Ghats across Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
    • Etymology: Derived from Tamil word “solai”, meaning sacred grove or thicket.
    • Structure: Occur as a mosaic of stunted evergreen forests and grasslands, forming the shola–grassland ecosystem.
    • Floral Composition: Dominated by Michelia nilagirica, Rhododendron, Eurya, Schefflera, and Elaeocarpus species with rich epiphyte growth.
    • Ecological Role: Act as natural sponges, absorbing rain, recharging aquifers, and feeding perennial rivers like Cauvery, Bhavani, Vaigai, and Thamirabarani.
    • Biodiversity: Support high endemism, harbouring Nilgiri Tahr, Lion-tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Pipit, and other rare fauna.

     

    [UPSC 2020] Which of the following Protected Areas are located in Cauvery basin?

    1. Nagarhole National Park

    2. Papikonda National Park

    3. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve

    4. Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Rowmari- Donduwa Wetland Complex

    Why in the News?

    Environmentalists in Assam have proposed the Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex for designation as a Ramsar Site, citing its exceptional biodiversity and ecological services.

    Assam’s Wetland Context:

    • Current Scenario: Assam has 3,500+ wetlands (≈1.01 lakh ha), but only Deepor Beel (2002) is a Ramsar Site.
    • Conservation Importance: Designating Rowmari–Donduwa would fill a 20-year conservation gap and enhance Assam’s global wetland profile.
    • Regional Context: North-East India’s Ramsar Sites-  Deepor Beel (Assam), Loktak (Manipur), Rudrasagar (Tripura), Pala (Mizoram).

    About Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex:

    • Overview: Situated within the Laokhowa–Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagaon district, Assam, forming part of the Kaziranga–Orang landscape.
    • Ecological Role: An interconnected floodplain–marsh system acting as an ecological corridor between Kaziranga and Orang National Parks, supporting wildlife movement and genetic diversity.
    • Biodiversity Significance: The 6th Kaziranga Wetland Bird Census (2025) recorded 47,000+ birds of 120 species, exceeding counts from Deepor Beel and Loktak Lake.
    • Key Species: Hosts globally threatened birds, Knob-billed Duck, Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, Ferruginous Pochard, and Common Pochard.
    • Ecosystem Services: Provides flood control, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and supports fisheries and ecotourism-based livelihoods.
    • Ramsar Eligibility: Fulfils 8 of 9 Ramsar criteria, qualifying as a Wetland of International Importance.

    Back2Basics: Ramsar Convention

    • Establishment: Signed on 2 February 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.
    • Objective: Provide a framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
    • Functions:
      • Identify and designate wetlands of international importance.
      • Promote effective management of wetlands.
      • Foster international cooperation for conservation.
    • Members: 173 countries (as of 2025).
    • India and Ramsar:
      • India joined in 1982.
      • First Ramsar site: Chilika Lake, Odisha (1981).
      • Current total: 93 sites (Sept 2025), covering 13,60,718 hectares.
      • Growth: From 26 sites in 2012 to 93 in 2025 (51 added since 2020).
      • State-wise: Tamil Nadu has the highest (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
      • About 10% of India’s total wetland area is under Ramsar listing.
    • Montreux Record: List of Ramsar sites under threat of ecological change.
      • 48 sites globally (2025).
      • 2 Indian sites included: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
    • World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd every year.
      • 2025 Theme: “Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future”.

    Criteria for Declaration (9 Criteria):

    A wetland can be declared a Ramsar site if it meets at least one of these:

    1. Has unique, rare, or representative wetland types.
    2. Supports vulnerable, endangered, or endemic species.
    3. Provides critical habitat for waterfowl, especially during migration.
    4. Contains significant ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological features.
    5. Supports biodiversity conservation and scientific research.
    6. Provides ecosystem services like flood control, groundwater recharge, and water purification.
    7. Has cultural, spiritual, or recreational importance.
    8. Ensures sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
    9. Faces threats requiring international cooperation for conservation.

     

    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Wetland/Lake Location

    1. Hokera Wetland- Punjab

    2. Renuka Wetland- Himachal Pradesh

    3. Rudrasagar Lake- Tripura

    4. Sasthamkotta Lake- Tamil Nadu

    How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs