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GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

  • In news: Namdhari Sect

    Why in the News?

    Recently, followers of the two rival groups within the Namdhari religious sect clashed violently in Haryana.

    About Namdhari Sect

    Details
    Founder Satguru Ram Singh in 1857 (on Baisakhi)

    Also known as Kuka Movement
    Primary Beliefs – Belief in a living human Guru; Also known as Kuka/Kukaism
    – Guru Granth Sahib is considered the Supreme Gurbani
    – Strict vegetarianism and teetotalism (alcohol is forbidden)
    Key Practices – Wearing white attire as a sign of mourning
    – Rejection of caste distinctions
    – Promotion of widow remarriage
    – Non-violent resistance– Cow is the sacred animal
    Headquarters Bhaini Sahib, Ludhiana, Punjab
    Global Presence – Deras across Punjab and Haryana
    – Presence in countries such as the UK, Canada, and Kenya
    Role in Independence – Early opposition to British rule
    – Adoption of non-cooperation and boycott of British goods
    – Victims of severe British reprisals
    Notable Historical Event Malerkotla Massacre (1872) – 66 Namdharis executed by the British
    Leadership Succession – After Ram Singh: His brother Satguru Hari Singh
    – Later Successors: Satguru Partap Singh, Satguru Jagjit Singh
    – Current leaders: Uday Singh and Dalip Singh (factional dispute)

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following Bhakti Saints :

    1. Dadu Dayal

    2. Guru Nanak

    3. Tyagaraja

    Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?

    (a) 1 and 3

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3

    (d) 1 and 2

  • [pib] Project PARI  

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Culture recently launched Project PARI (Public Art of India) coincided with the 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee Meeting, held in New Delhi.

    About Project PARI

    Details
    Launched by Ministry of Culture
    Nodal Agency Lalit Kala Akademi, National Gallery of Modern Art
    Objective Enhance New Delhi’s cultural and aesthetic outlook
    Key Themes Nature tributes, Natyashastra, Gandhi ji, Toys of India, Hospitality, Ancient knowledge, Naad (Primeval Sound), Harmony of Life, Kalpataru (Divine Tree).
    Artist Participation Over 200 visual artists; significant participation from women artists
    Artforms included Phad paintings (Rajasthan), Thangka painting (Sikkim/Ladakh), Miniature painting (Himachal Pradesh), Gond art (Madhya Pradesh), Tanjore paintings (Tamil Nadu), Kalamkari (Andhra Pradesh), Alpona art (West Bengal), Cheriyal painting (Telangana), Pichhwai Painting (Rajasthan), Lanjia Saura (Odisha), Pattachitra (West Bengal), Bani Thani Painting (Rajasthan), Warli (Maharashtra), Pithora Art (Gujarat), Aipan (Uttarakhand), Kerala Murals (Kerala), Alpana art (Tripura).

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] The well-known painting “Bani Thani” belongs to the:

    (a) Bundi school

    (b) Jaipur school

    (c) Kangra school

    (d) Kishangarh school

  • [pib] Adopt a Heritage Scheme 2.0 

    Why in the News?

    Under the Adopt a Heritage Scheme 2.0, 19 MoUs have been signed so far covering a total of 66 monuments.

    About Adopt a Heritage Scheme 2.0 

    Aspect Details
    Revamped version of the original Adopt a Heritage Scheme.

    Launched in 2023.
    Legal Framework Defined as per the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (AMASR), 1958
    Application Process Stakeholders apply through a dedicated web portal listing available monuments for adoption
    Collaboration Encourages corporate stakeholders to contribute to monument preservation
    Term of Appointment Initially 5 years, extendable up to another five years
    Objective Foster collaboration for preservation of monuments for future generations
    Key Stakeholders Corporate stakeholders, Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Culture, ASI, State/UT governments
    Program Goal Develop and maintain amenities at heritage sites
    Initial Scheme
    • Launch Date: 27 September 2017 (World Tourism Day) by the President of India.
    • Collaborators: Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Culture, ASI, and State/UT governments.
    • Objective: Address challenges in operations and maintenance of heritage sites, develop mechanisms for amenities provision.
    • Monument Mitras: Agencies/Companies become ‘Monument Mitras’ through ‘Vision Bidding’.
    Note: Red Fort was the first monument to be adopted under the scheme by the Dalmia Bharat group in 2019.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Safeguarding the Indian Art Heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss.

  • [pib] India concludes 46th World Heritage Committee Session in New Delhi

    Why in the News?

    • The 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee has concluded successfully.
      • It was the first time India hosted this international assembly.

    Capacity-building initiatives proposed by India

    • India pledged $1 million to the UNESCO World Heritage Centre to support capacity-building initiatives and conservation projects in developing countries.
    • India proposed to develop and implement training programs for heritage professionals from around the world.
    • India proposed exchange programs for heritage professionals and researchers.
    • Leading Indian heritage institutions, such as the Archaeological Survey of India and the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), will play a key role in implementing the initiatives.

    About the World Heritage Young Professional Forum

    • The World Heritage Young Professionals Forum is an initiative by UNESCO to engage young professionals in the field of heritage conservation.
    • The first World Heritage Young Professionals Forum was organized in 1995.
    • The primary aim is to engage young professionals in heritage conservation and management through capacity building, networking, and awareness-raising.

    Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

    Description
    UNESCO World Heritage Sites Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties.
    Importance World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history.
    Selection Criteria Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc.
    Conservation World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence.
    World Heritage Committee Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term.
    Membership India is NOT a permanent member of the World Heritage Committee.

    It has been selected for a term from 2021 to 2025.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
    3. The World Heritage Convention

    Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Assam’s Charaideo Moidam included in UNESCO World Heritage List

    Why in the News?

    The Charaideo Moidams, a unique 700-year-old mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty from Assam, has been added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.

    About Charaideo Moidams

    • The Charaideo moidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
      • Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was the first capital of the Ahom dynasty founded by Chao Lung Sukaphaa in 1253.
    • The Ahoms preferred to place the deceased family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
    • The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
    • After 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
    • Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.

    Architecture details:

    • Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
    • It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
    • At the top of the mound, a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
    • An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.

    Significance of this addition:

    • Moidams has become the 43rd property from India to be included in the UNESCO List.
    • India now stands at the 6th position globally for the most number of World Heritage Properties.
    • The Moidams are the first site from the North East to be recognized as a World Heritage Site in the cultural category.
    • Assam has 2 other World Heritage Sites in the natural category: Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, both upgraded to tiger reserves.

    Who were the Ahoms?

    • The Ahom, also known as the Tai-Ahom, are an ethnic group from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
    • This ethnic group is made up of interbred descendants of the Tai people, who first came to Assam’s Brahmaputra valley in 1228, and indigenous people who later joined them.
    • The current Ahom people and culture are a mix of the ancient Tai people and culture, as well as indigenous Tibeto-Burman people and cultures that they assimilated in Assam.
    • Sukaphaa, the Tai group’s leader, and his 9000 supporters founded the Ahom empire (1228–1826 CE), which ruled over part of modern-day Assam’s Brahmaputra Valley until 1826.
    • It retained sovereignty for 600 years until annexed by British India in 1826 (Treaty of Yandaboo).
    • Lachit Borphukan (1622-1672) is the most celebrated ruler of Ahom Dynasty.

    Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites 

    Aspect

    Details
    Definition Sites of outstanding cultural or natural value to humanity, are protected under the UNESCO Convention of 1972.
    Classification
    1. Cultural Heritage Sites: Historic buildings, archaeological sites, monumental sculptures/paintings.
    2. Natural Heritage Sites: Unique geologic processes, rare phenomena, habitats for endangered species.
    3. Mixed Heritage Sites: Both natural and cultural significance.
    Benefits
    • Raises awareness for conservation
    • Provides technical assistance and training
    • Encourages local participation
    • Boosts tourism
    • Offers financial aid and expert advice for preservation
    Criteria for Declaration Cultural Criteria:

    • Human creative genius
    • Interchange of human values
    • Testimony to cultural tradition
    • Significant stage in human history
    • Traditional human settlement
    • Associated with significant events/traditions

    Natural Criteria:

    • Natural beauty and aesthetic importance
    • Earth’s history and geological processes
    • Ecological and biological processes
    • Biodiversity and conservation

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.

    (b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.

    (c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river.

    (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.

  • Bihar’s Vishnupad and Mahabodhi Temples

    Why in the News?

    • Finance Minister announced during her Union Budget speech that corridor projects will be built for the Vishnupad Temple at Gaya and the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar.

    About the Vishnupad Temple at Gaya

    Details
    Dedicated to Lord Vishnu
    Significance Contains a 40 cm long footprint of Lord Vishnu; considered sacred in Hinduism; attracts pilgrims for “Pind Daan” rituals.
    Historical Importance Believed to be over 1000 years old; associated with various legends and historical references in Hindu texts.
    Architecture
    • Built in Shikhara style;
    • Features intricate carvings and silver-plated flagposts;
    • Constructed of grey granite blocks.
    Built by Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore in 1787.
    Festivals and Rituals
    • Major site for “Pind Daan” rituals during Pitru Paksha;
    • Attracts thousands of pilgrims during this period.
    Mythology The footprint is believed to be where Lord Vishnu placed his foot to subdue the demon Gayasur.
    Associated River Located on the banks of the Phalgu River, considered sacred for ritual offerings.
    Access and Visitation Accessible year-round; major pilgrimage site with facilities for devotees.
    Recent Developments Ongoing efforts for preservation and restoration; improved infrastructure for pilgrims.

     

    About the Mahabodhi Temple Complex:

    Details
    Location Bodh Gaya, Bihar;
    Significance Marks the location where Buddha attained enlightenment
    UNESCO Status World Heritage Site since 2002
    Historical Importance
    • One of the four holy sites related to Buddha’s life (Enlightenment).
    • Other holy sites: Lumbini (Birth) in Nepal, Sarnath (First Sermon) in Uttar Pradesh, Kushinagar (Death) in Uttar Pradesh
    Original Construction Built by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka around 260 BCE
    Reconstruction Reconstructed in brick during the late Gupta period (5th or 6th centuries)
    Archaeological Finds
    • Indicates site of veneration since the Mauryan period.
    • Vajrasana (Diamond Throne): Located within the temple, dated to the third century BCE
    Main Temple Structure Dates from the 6th century CE, incorporates parts from 2nd or 3rd century CE
    Architectural Features
    • Two large shikhara towers, the largest over 55 meters high
    • Influenced Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist architecture globally
    Materials Made mostly of brick covered with stucco
    Bodhi Tree Direct descendant of the original tree under which Buddha attained enlightenment
    Traditional Accounts Describes 7 weeks Buddha spent meditating after enlightenment at various spots within the complex
    Decline and Revival
    • Declined after Huna invasions and early Islamic invasions.
    • Revived under the Pala Empire (8th-12th century).
    • Declined again after 12th century CE invasions by Turk armies.

  • [pib] World Heritage Young Professionals Forum, 2024

    Why in the News?

    • India is hosting the UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee meeting for the first time in New Delhi.
      • Theme: “World Heritage in the 21st Century: Building Capacities and Exploring Opportunities for Youth.”

    About the World Heritage Young Professional Forum

    • The World Heritage Young Professionals Forum is an initiative by UNESCO to engage young professionals in the field of heritage conservation.
    • The first World Heritage Young Professionals Forum was organized in 1995.
    • The primary aim is to engage young professionals in heritage conservation and management through capacity building, networking, and awareness-raising.

    Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

    Description
    UNESCO World Heritage Sites Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties.
    Importance World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history.
    Selection Criteria Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc.
    Conservation World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence.
    World Heritage Committee Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term.
    Membership India is not a member of the World Heritage Committee.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
    3. The World Heritage Convention

    Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Ratna Bhandar of Puri Jagannath Temple, opened after 46 years

    Why in the News?

    After 46 years, the sacred treasury of Shree Jagannath Temple, Puri, known as Ratna Bhandar, was reopened amid years of legal battles, controversies, and debates.

    About the Ratna Bhandar

    • The Ratna Bhandar stores the gold and jewels offered by devotees to the deities Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra, and Goddess Subhadra.
    • It is located adjacent to the prayer hall on the north side of the temple.
    • It consists of two sections: the ‘Bhitar Bhandar’ (Inner Treasury) and the ‘Bahar Bhandar’ (Outer Treasury), with the last inventory in 1978 noting significant amounts of gold and silver items in both chambers.
    • Legend says, Odisha’s King Anangabhima Dev (1211 to 1238) donated 2.5 lakh madhas of gold to prepare jewellery for the almighty.
    • The Odisha government passed the Jagannath Temple Act, 1952 to have a greater role in the temple’s management, which included maintaining an inventory of the offerings in the Puri collectorate’s Record Room.

    Recent Developments:

    • The safety of the Ratna Bhandar is managed by the Temple’s Committee, chaired by the titular ‘King of Puri’ and includes IAS officers and other state-appointed members.
    • Originally, keys to the Ratna Bhandar were held by the Puri royal family, temple committee, and collectorate, with significant changes in ownership and access protocols over the years due to legal rulings.
    • The recent reopening involved breaking the locks of the inner chamber as they could not be opened traditionally, following strict procedures.

    About Jagannath Puri Temple

    • The Jagannath Temple is an important Vaishnavite temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna in Puri in Odisha.
    • The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century onwards, on the site of an earlier temple, and begun by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva, the first king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
    • The Puri temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra, or chariot festival, in which the three principal deities are pulled on huge and elaborately decorated temple cars.

    Its Architecture:

    • With its sculptural richness and fluidity of the Oriya style of temple architecture, it is one of the most magnificent monuments of India.
    • The huge temple complex covers an area of over 400,000 square feet and is surrounded by a high fortified wall.
    • This 20 feet high wall is known as Meghanada Pacheri.
    • Another wall known as kurma bedha surrounds the main temple.

    The temple has four distinct sectional structures, namely:

    1. Deula, Vimana or Garba griha (Sanctum sanctorum) where the triad deities are lodged on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls). In Rekha Deula style;
    2. Mukhashala (Frontal porch);
    3. Nata mandir/Natamandapa, which is also known as the Jagamohan (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), and
    4. Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall)

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the:

    (a) Three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent

    (b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the languages of India can be classified

    (c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture

    (d) Three main musical Gharanas prevalent in India

  • Temples in News: Mahabodhi Temple, Puri Jagannath Temple

    Description

    Mahabodhi Temple Complex

    Mahabodhi Temple Tourism (Bodh Gaya) (2024) - A Complete Travel Guide
    • Location: Bodh Gaya, Bihar
    • Significance: Marks the location where Buddha attained enlightenment.
    • UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site since 2002.
    • Historical Importance: One of the four holy sites related to Buddha’s life (Enlightenment).
    • Original Construction: Built by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka around 260 BCE.
    • Reconstruction: Reconstructed in brick during the late Gupta period (5th or 6th centuries).
    • Archaeological Finds: Indicates a site of veneration since the Mauryan period; Vajrasana (Diamond Throne) dated to the third century BCE.
    • Main Temple Structure: Dates from the 6th century CE, incorporates parts from 2nd or 3rd century CE.
    • Architectural Features: Two large shikhara towers, the largest over 55 meters high; influenced Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist architecture globally.
    • Materials: Made mostly of brick covered with stucco.
    • Bodhi Tree: A direct descendant of the original tree under which Buddha attained enlightenment.
    • Traditional Accounts: Describes 7 weeks Buddha spent meditating after enlightenment at various spots within the complex.
    • Decline and Revival: Declined after the Huna and early Islamic invasions; revived under the Pala Empire (8th-12th century); declined again after 12th century CE invasions by Turk armies.

    Ratna Bhandar of Jagannath Puri Temple

    • Location: Puri, Odisha
    • Significance: Important Vaishnavite temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna
    • History: Rebuilt from the 10th century onwards, begun by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva, first king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
    • Annual Event: Famous for its annual Ratha Yatra (chariot festival) where three principal deities are pulled on huge, elaborately decorated temple cars
    • Architecture: Oriya style of temple architecture; complex covers over 400,000 square feet, surrounded by a high fortified wall (Meghanada Pacheri); main structures include Deula (Sanctum sanctorum), Mukhashala (Frontal porch), Nata mandir/Natamandapa (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall)

    Ratna Bhandar:

    • Context: The sacred treasury of Shree Jagannath Temple, Puri, known as Ratna Bhandar, was reopened after 46 years amid legal battles and controversies
    • Contents: Stores gold and jewels offered by devotees to the deities Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra, and Goddess Subhadra
    • Location: Adjacent to the prayer hall on the north side of the temple.
    • Sections: Consists of two sections: the ‘Bhitar Bhandar’ (Inner Treasury) and the ‘Bahar Bhandar’ (Outer Treasury)
    • Historical Significance: Legend says Odisha’s King Anangabhima Dev (1211 to 1238) donated 2.5 lakh madhas of gold to prepare jewelry for the deities
    • Management: Safety managed by the Temple’s Committee chaired by the titular ‘King of Puri’; keys held by the Puri royal family, temple committee, and collectorate with changes over the years
    • Recent Developments: Reopened by breaking the locks of the inner chamber due to inability to open traditionally, following strict procedures

     

     

    Also in news: World Heritage Young Professional Forum

    • India is hosting the UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee meeting for the first time in New Delhi.
      • Theme: “World Heritage in the 21st Century: Building Capacities and Exploring Opportunities for Youth.”
    • The World Heritage Young Professionals Forum is an initiative by UNESCO to engage young professionals in the field of heritage conservation.
    • The first World Heritage Young Professionals Forum was organized in 1995.
    • The primary aim is to engage young professionals in heritage conservation and management through capacity building, networking, and awareness-raising.

    PYQ:

    [2012] The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the:

    (a) Three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent

    (b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the languages of India can be classified

    (c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture

    (d) Three main musical Gharanas prevalent in India

  • News in Frames: Chandravalli Caves

    Why in the News?

    Observations made by previous historians who had found painted pottery and coins from the Shatavahana empire and the pre-historic period were once again in the news.

    About Chandravalli Caves (also known as Ankali Math)

      • Chandravalli, a cave temple near Chitradurga, is also a pre-historic site.
      • Observations at the Site:
        • Previous excavations were carried out by Mortimer Wheeler under the guidance of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1947.
        • The cave features multiple chambers including a puja place with a shivlinga, a drawing room, a bedroom, and a water outlet connected to an internal tank.
        • The caves are accessible only through a narrow entrance, with interiors visible only with the help of a powerful torch hence they are also called as “Dark Caves”.
          • Presently, Excavations have revealed artifacts such as coins, painted bowls, and earthen pots from various dynasties such as the Hoysala, the Satavahana, and the Vijayanagara.
          • Excavation reports show that human habitation existed here even during the Iron Age.
    • Historical Aspect: 
      • They were named after a saint from Ankalagi in Belagavi district who is believed to have settled here.
      • The cave also contains a rock inscription of Mayurasharma, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty, dating back to AD 450.

    About Kadamba dynasty

    • The Kadambas of Goa were vassals of the Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana. In recognition of his assistance in defeating the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyan emperor Tailapa II appointed Kadamba Shasthadeva as the provincial governor (Mahamandaleshwara) of Goa.
    • In 960 AD, Shasthadeva captured the city of Chandavara from the Shilaharas and later seized control of the port of Gopakapattana, which is present-day Goa.
    • Talara Nevayya’s son Gundayya may have fought alongside Shasthadeva in the conquest of the port but died in the battle after successfully capturing it.
    • Coins from Indian kings like Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, Krishnadevaraya, various Satavahana kings, and Viraraya of the Hoysala kingdom have been discovered.
    • Among the foreign coins found are denarii of Roman ruler Augustus Caesar and a coin of Chinese Han dynasty Emperor Wu Ti.
    • Geographical Aspects:
      • The area is semi-arid with scrub vegetation and a stream running through it.
      • These caves are surrounded by three hills: Chitradurga, Kirabanakallu, and Jolagudda.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.

    (b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.

    (c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river.

    (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.