GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Why in the news?

• Telangana’s Department of Heritage has recently unearthed a lead coin hoard belonging to Ikshvaku Period at Phanigiri, a renowned Buddhist heritage site.
• The coins numbering 3,730 bore an elephant symbol on the obverse and a Ujjain symbol on the reverse.

Who were the Ikshvaku (225-340 A.D)?

1. Origin and Rule

• The Ikshvaku dynasty was a feudatory under the patronage of the Satavahanas.
• Their capital was located at Vijayapuri, modern-day Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh.
• They ruled over the delta of the Krishna and Godavari rivers on the east coast of the Andhra region.
• They claimed to be descendants of the legendary king Ikshvaku, mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Rigveda and Ramayana.
• The dynasty’s founder was Vasishthiputra Chamtamula, who rose to power after the decline of the Satavahana dynasty.

2. Cultural Affiliations

• The Ikshvakus were Shaivites and performed Vedic rites, but they also patronized Buddhism, which flourished during their reign.
• Under the reign of Vasishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, the Ikshvaku kingdom reached its zenith, marked by the construction of numerous Hindu and Buddhist shrines.
• Their inscriptions and coins have been discovered at various archaeological sites, including Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Kottampalugu, Gurazala, Rentala, and Uppugunduru.

3. Decline:

• Successive rulers, such as Mathari-putra Vira-purusha-datta, Vasishthi-putra Ehuvala Chamtamula, and Vasishthi-putra Rudra-purusha-datta, contributed to the expansion and governance of the kingdom.
• By the mid-4th century, the Pallavas had gained control of the former Ikshvaku territory, marking the decline of the dynasty.

About Phanigiri Phanigiri village derived its name from the shape of the hillock, which appears to be like a snake hood. The word Phani in Sanskrit means snake and Giri means hillock. Studies suggest that the village had a vibrant life from 1000 BC to 18th century AD. Phanigiri is believed to be one of the important Buddhist monasteries strategically located on the hilltop, on the ancient trade route (Dakshinapatha) connecting the west and the east coast of the Deccan. Various stages of earlier excavations here discovered Mahastupa, apsidal Chaityagrihas, Votive stupas, pillared congregation halls, Viharas, platforms with staircases at various levels, octagonal stupa chaitya, 24-pillared mandapam, circular Chaitya. Cultural materials included terracotta beads, semi-precious beads, iron objects, Brahmi label inscriptions and holy relic casket.

 

 

PYQ: [2017] How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of Gupta Numismatic Art is not at all noticeable in later times?

Why in the news?

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has proposed to add information about the DNA analysis of skeletal remains found at Rakhigarhi.

DNA Findings of Rakhigarhi Their key findings include- Debunking of the Aryan Invasion Theory. The genetic roots of the Harappans date back to 10,000 BCE. DNA of the Harappans has continued to exist among the majority of the South Asian population. The study indicates genetic continuity without large-scale immigration. Ancestry was closely linked to Iranian ancestry and not at all to Steppe ancestry. Farming skills have been developed indigenously contrary to prevalent theories that these came with migrants from the Steppes and Anatolian farmers.

About Rakhigarhi

• The ancient site of Rakhi-Khas and Rakhi-Shahpur are collectively known as Rakhigarhi, located on the right bank of the now dried up Palaeo-channel of Drishadvati.
• It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra River plain in the Hissar district of Haryana.
• Total seven mounds are located here.
• The site has yielded various stages of Harappan culture and is by far one of the largest Harappan sites in India.
• The site shows the sequential development of the Indus culture in the now dried-up Saraswati basin.

Major findings at Rakhigarhi

• Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.
• Digging so far reveals a well-planned city with 92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan.
• The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali.
• Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies.
• There are brick-lined drains to handle sewage from the houses.
• Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found.
• A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver.
• A granary belonging to the mature Harappan phase has been found here.
• Fire altars structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.

PYQ: [2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs?​ (a) Dholavira (b) Kalibangan (c) Rakhigarhi (d) Ropar

Why in the news?

The Kerala Kalamandalam, a deemed university for arts and culture, has unanimously lifted gender restrictions allowing boys for learning Mohiniyattam, a classical dance form.

About Mohiniyattam

	Description
Name Meaning	Mohini – female enchantress avatar of Vishnu; Aattam – rhythmic motion or dance (Malayalam)
Roots	Natya Shastra, ancient Hindu Sanskrit text on performance arts
Style	Lasya Style – delicate, eros-filled, and feminine
Performers	Traditionally women, but men also perform in contemporary times
Music	Includes Carnatic music, singing, and enactment of plays through dance
Language	Manipravalam : a Malayalam-Sanskrit hybrid
Posture	Parted feet, gentle swaying of body, soft footwork synchronized with music beats
Gestures	Follow the classical text of Hastha Lakshanadeepika with elaborate mudras (hand gestures)
Costumes	Plain white or off-white sarees with golden brocade, pleated sheets for freedom of movement, adorned with jewellery
Accessories	Jewellery on fingers, wrists, neck, and ears, ankle bells (for female performers), dhotis and similar accessories (for male performers)
Makeup	Natural with brilliant red lips, tikka (Gobi) on forehead, lined eyes
Music	Various rhythms and compositions in Manipravalam, accompanied by instruments like Mridangam, Idakka, flute, Veena, and Kuzhitalam
Ragas	Rendered in the Sopana Style, a slow melodic style rooted in the Natya Shastra

 

 

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PYQ:

2012: How do you distinguish between Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam dances?

1. Dancers occasionally speaking dialogues is found in Kuchipudi dance but not in Bharatanatyam.
2. Dancing on the brass plate by keeping the feet on its edges is a feature of Bharatanatyam but Kuchipudi dance does not have such a form of movements.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2

 

Practice MCQ:

Which of the following statements about Mohiniyattam is not true?

1. Mohiniyattam derives its name from “Mohini,” the female enchantress avatar of Vishnu, and “Aattam,” meaning rhythmic motion or dance in Malayalam.
2. Its roots can be traced back to the Natya Shastra, an ancient Hindu Sanskrit text on performance arts.
3. Mohiniyattam is characterized by the Tandava style, known for its vigorous movements.
4. Performances of Mohiniyattam typically include enactment of plays through dance, accompanied by singing and Carnatic music.

Why in the news?

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to remove 18 “centrally protected monuments” from its list of Monuments of National Importance (MNI), citing a lack of national significance.
• ASI currently has 3,693 monuments under its purview, which will fall to 3,675 once the current delisting exercise is completed in the next few weeks.

What are Monuments of National Importance (MNI)?

• MNI in India are legally protected under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act, 1958.
• This act empowers the Centre to declare certain monuments as MNIs through official notifications published in the Gazette of India.
• It mandates the protection, preservation, and maintenance of MNIs to ensure their integrity and authenticity for future generations.
• The Act empowers the central government to appoint authorities, such as the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), to oversee the protection and management of MNIs.

Key Features of MNI Protection

• Prohibited Activities: The Act prohibits certain activities within the precincts of MNIs, such as construction, excavation, and removal of artifacts, without prior permission from the relevant authorities.
• Designated Zones: Within a 100-meter radius of the monument, construction activities are prohibited to prevent encroachment and damage. An additional 200-meter radius (100 + 200 meters) constitutes a regulated area where construction is subject to specific regulations to maintain the monument’s integrity and surroundings.
• Maintenance of Records: The Act requires the maintenance of records and registers documenting the history, conservation, and management of MNIs.

Understanding Monument Delisting

• Once delisted, monuments are no longer subject to ASI conservation efforts, allowing for regular construction activities in the vicinity.
• Section 35 of the AMASR Act allows for the delisting of monuments deemed to have lost national importance.
• The delisting process involves official notifications, with a two-month public feedback period to address objections or suggestions.

 

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PYQ:

2015: With reference to art and archaeological history of India, which one among the following was made earliest?

1. Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar
2. Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli
3. Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram
4. Varaha Image at Udayagiri

 

Practice MCQ:

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to remove 18 “centrally protected monuments”. This essentially implies:

1. The site will no longer be conserved, protected, and maintained by the ASI.
2. Activities related to construction and urbanisation in the area can be carried out in a regular manner.

Which of the given statements is/are correct?

1. Only 1
2. Only 2
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2

What is the news?

A 900-year-old Kannada inscription from the Kalyana Chalukya dynasty has been discovered in a state of neglect at Gangapuram, a temple town in Jadcherla mandal, Mahabubnagar, Telangana.

The inscription dates back to June 8, 1134 CE (Friday) and was issued by the Customs Officers of Tailapa-III, son of Kalyana Chalukya Emperor ‘Bhulokamalla’ Someswara-III. It records the remission of toll taxes for the perpetual lamp and incense of God Somanatha.

Who were the Chalukyas?

Origin and Expansion:

• The Chalukyas emerged as a prominent dynasty in the 6th century CE, with their capital at Badami in present-day Karnataka.
• Pulakeshin I, the founder of the dynasty, ascended to the throne around 543 CE and expanded the empire by defeating the Kadambas, Mauryas, and other neighboring kingdoms.
• Pulakeshin II, one of the most illustrious rulers of the Chalukyan Empire, ascended the throne in 610 CE and significantly expanded its territory through military conquests and diplomatic alliances.
• The empire reached its zenith under Pulakeshin II, extending its influence over large parts of Southern and Central India, including present-day Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh.

Dynastic Divisions:

• The Chalukyan Empire witnessed the emergence of multiple dynastic branches, including the Badami Chalukyas, Western Chalukyas (also known as the Later Chalukyas), and Eastern Chalukyas (also known as the Chalukyas of Vengi).

1. Badami Chalukyas ruled from their capital at Badami and were known for their contributions to art, architecture, and literature.
2. Western Chalukyas, based in Kalyani (present-day Basavakalyan), continued the legacy of their predecessors and established their dominance over parts of present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra.
3. Eastern Chalukyas, based in Vengi (present-day Andhra Pradesh), carved out their own kingdom and played a crucial role in the political dynamics of South India.

Religion and Faith:

• The Chalukyas were patrons of art, literature, and architecture, fostering a rich cultural environment within their empire.
• They promoted Hinduism as the dominant religion and contributed to the construction of numerous temples dedicated to Hindu deities, including the famous Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal.
• The Chalukyas also patronized Jainism and Buddhism, leading to the construction of Jain caves and monasteries in regions under their control.

Decline and Legacy:

• The Chalukyan Empire faced internal conflicts, dynastic rivalries, and external invasions, leading to its gradual decline from the 12th century onwards.
• The defeat of Vikramaditya VI by the Cholas in the 12th century marked the end of the Western Chalukya dynasty, while the Eastern Chalukyas continued to rule in Vengi until the 13th century.

Administration:

• The empire was divided into administrative units known as ‘Rashtras or Mandalas’, each governed by a local administrative officer known as a ‘Mandaleshwara’.
• At the higher levels of administration, provincial governors known as ‘Rashtrakutas’ were appointed to oversee multiple mandalas and report directly to the king.
• Revenue administration played a crucial role in sustaining the empire, with land revenue being the primary source of income. The empire maintained a sophisticated system of land measurement and taxation to ensure a steady flow of revenue.

Arts and Culture:

• Sculpture flourished under the patronage of the Chalukya rulers, with exquisite examples of stone carvings adorning temple complexes and royal monuments.
• The famous Nataraja sculpture at Pattadakal, depicting Lord Shiva in his cosmic dance pose, is a masterpiece of Chalukyan art.
• Pampa, a court poet of the Chalukyas, composed the epic poem “Vikramarjuna Vijaya” (also known as “Pampa Bharata” or “Pampa Ramayana”) in Kannada, narrating the story of the Mahabharata from the perspective of Arjuna.
• The Chalukyan era witnessed the development of classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, as evidenced by sculptures found in temples such as the Mallikarjuna Temple at Pattadakal.
• Ranna, a prominent Kannada poet of the Chalukyan period, composed the “Ajita Tirthankara Purana,” an epic poem celebrating the lives of the Jain Tirthankaras.

Architecture:

• Chalukyan temples are architectural marvels, characterized by their distinctive Dravidian and Nagara styles collectively called the ‘Gadag Style’ .
• The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, built by the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya II in the 8th century, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site renowned for its intricate carvings and towering gopurams (entrance gateways).
• Similarly, the Durga Temple at Aihole, dating back to the 7th century, showcases exemplary Chalukyan architecture with its ornate pillars and sculpted panels depicting Hindu deities and mythological scenes.

 

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PYQ:

2019: Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of

1. Chalukya
2. Chandela
3. Rashtrakuta
4. Vijayanagara

 

Practice MCQ:

The ‘Gadag Style’ of Temple Architecture is associated with which of the following dynasties?

1. Chalukya
2. Kakatiya
3. Rashtrakuta
4. Kadamba

In the news

• The question of reincarnation, typically seen as an esoteric concept, has significant political ramifications concerning the search for a successor to Tibet’s Dalai Lama.
• As the 88-year-old spiritual leader, Tenzin Gyatso, remains in good health, the anticipation surrounding his succession intensifies, particularly against the backdrop of historical and geopolitical tensions.

Who is the Dalai Lama?

• The Dalai Lama (a title) is the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism.
• He is believed to be the reincarnation of the previous Dalai Lama and is regarded as an important figure not only in Tibet but also around the world.
• The Dalai Lama is traditionally both the political and spiritual leader of Tibet, but after China’s occupation of Tibet in 1950, he went into exile in India and since then has been primarily a spiritual leader.
• The current and 14th Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso, who was born in Tibet in 1935 and has been in exile in India since 1959.

Brief Outline of Tibetan Buddhism

• Tibetan Buddhism became the predominant religion in Tibet by the 9th century AD, evolving from the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism and incorporating many tantric and shamanic practices.
• It has four major schools: Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug, with the Janang School being one of the smaller schools that grew as an offshoot of the Sakya School.
• Since 1640, the Gelug School has been the predominant school of Tibetan Buddhism, and the Dalai Lama belongs to this school.

Hierarchy and Reincarnation in Tibetan Buddhism

• The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is one of Buddhism’s key beliefs.
• Tibet’s hierarchical system seemingly emerged in the 13th century, and it was around this time that the first instances of “formally recognizing the reincarnations of lamas” can be found.
• The Gelug School developed a strong hierarchy and instituted the tradition of succession through reincarnation, with the fifth Grand Lama of the school being conferred the title of Dalai Lama.
• Several procedures/tests are followed to recognize Tulkus (recognized reincarnations).

Key Issue: Chinese Interference

• Political Intrigue: The announcement of the Dalai Lama’s reincarnation sparks concerns about Chinese interference, as China seeks to control the succession process to assert dominance over Tibetan culture and politics.
• International Ramifications: The Dalai Lama’s reincarnation is not only a spiritual matter but also a geopolitical issue, with international stakeholders closely monitoring developments to safeguard Tibetan autonomy and cultural heritage.

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Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2016:

Q.With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 2 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

In the news

• Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi sparked controversy with his recent remarks about Ayya Vaikundar, the 19th-century social reformer.
• At an event commemorating birth anniversary, the Governor portrayed him as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, tasked with protecting Sanatan Dharma from the influence of the British government.

About Ayya Vaikundar (1809-1851)

• Born in 1809, Vaikundar is revered as a pioneer of social reform in southern Tamil Nadu.
• His teachings emphasized equality, fraternity, and the abolition of caste-based discrimination, challenging entrenched social hierarchies.
• Vaikundar’s initiatives, such as organizing community eateries for people of all backgrounds and advocating for shared water resources, aimed to dismantle caste barriers and promote inclusivity.

Contributions to Social Equality

• Community Initiatives: Vaikundar introduced revolutionary practices like Samapanthi-bhojana and Muthirikinarus to foster social cohesion and challenge caste-based segregation.
• Teachings: He believed in the concept of “pure love” (in Tamil, “piranthu”) as the ultimate goal of life. According to him, true love is selfless, unconditional, and pure, and it is the key to achieving inner peace and happiness.
• Scriptural References: His teachings are often rooted in Tamil scriptures such as the Tirukkural and the Nalayira Divya Prabandham. He interpreted these texts in a way that emphasized love, devotion, and spiritual growth.
• Community Practices: His followers engage in communal practices such as congregational worship, singing devotional songs (Nadai), and participating in spiritual gatherings known as “Ayyavazhi festivals.”
• Religious Reforms: He advocated for inclusive religious practices, such as Thottu Namam, which symbolized equality before divinity, regardless of caste.
• Educational Empowerment: He promoted education for lower castes, established community worship spaces, and simplified marriage customs to empower marginalized communities.