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GS Paper: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

  • Ecological Impact of the ELSA 3 Shipwreck in the Arabian Sea

    Why in the News?

    The sinking of the ELSA 3 ship off the Kerala coast in May led to a significant ecological disruption in the south-eastern Arabian Sea, a new study has confirmed.

    Ecological Impact of the ELSA 3 Shipwreck in the Arabian Sea

    About the Pollution and Contaminants:

    • Oil Slick: Wreck of ELSA 3 released petroleum pollutants, initially forming a slick of about 2 square miles.
    • Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): Compounds like naphthalene, fluorene, anthracene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene detected; toxic, carcinogenic, and bioaccumulative.
    • Naphthalene Marker: High levels confirmed continuous leakage from fuel tanks.
    • Trace Metals: Nickel, lead, copper, vanadium found in elevated levels in water and sediments, worsening toxicity.
    • Distribution: Oil spread shifted with sea turbulence—first mid-depth concentration, later visible on the surface.

    Ecological Impacts of the Oil Spill:

    • Plankton: Zooplankton showed pollutant accumulation, marking entry into the marine food chain.
    • Fish Eggs & Larvae: Collected in the southwest monsoon spawning season displayed decay and mortality, threatening commercial species recruitment.
    • Benthic Organisms: Sensitive species declined within days; only pollution-tolerant worms and bivalves survived, reflecting seabed stress.
    • Higher Fauna: Brown Noddy seabird (Anous stolidus) recorded with oil-soaked plumage, highlighting risks to birds and larger marine life.
    • Overall Effect: A multi-level disruption from plankton to fish stocks to seabirds.

    Microbial Response and Bioremediation:

    • Bacterial Diversity: Metagenomic studies found hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria near the wreck.
    • Key Strains: Neptunomonas acidivorans, Halomonas tabrizica, Acinetobacter baumannii detected.
    • Implications: Their presence reflects both severe contamination and natural bioremediation potential.
    • Outlook: Microbial action may reduce pollution gradually, but contamination in the Arabian Sea remains significant.
    [UPSC 2017] In the context of solving pollution problems what is/are the advantage/disadvantages of bioremediation technique?

    1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.

    2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.

    3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only, (b) 2 and 3 only, (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Ant Queens giving birth to different species

    Why in the News?

    A groundbreaking study published in Nature (2025) has revealed that Messor ibericus, a Mediterranean harvester ant species, can produce male offspring of a completely different species, Messor structor.

    Ant Queens giving birth to different species

    About the Specie Messor ibericus:

    • Overview: A Mediterranean harvester ant, widely distributed across Southern Europe, known for its grain-harvesting behaviour and large colonies.
    • Hybrid Workers: All workers are hybrids, carrying DNA from both Messor ibericus and Messor structor.
    • Cross-Species Male Production: About 10% of queen’s eggs develop into pure Messor structor males, even without nearby structor colonies.
    • Genetic Signature: These males retain Messor ibericus mitochondrial DNA, proving maternal origin.
    • Reproductive Strategy: As per the Nature study:
      • Ibericus sperm produces new queens.
      • Structor sperm produces hybrid workers and additional structor males.
    • Evolutionary Significance: First documented case of a species naturally producing offspring of another species, challenging classical species concepts.
    • Colony Advantage: By producing both hybrid workers and pure structor males, queens secure compatible mates for future generations, sustaining both lineages.
    [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following shows a unique relationship with an insect that has coevolved with it and that is the only insect that can pollinate this tree?

    Options:

    (a) Fig* (b) Mahua (c) Sandalwood (d) Silk cotton

     

  • Topography, climate change: Behind heavy rains in Himalayas

    Introduction

    Extreme rainfall in Uttarakhand over the past week has triggered multiple landslides, swelling rivers and leading to the loss of at least 15 lives. While such events have always occurred in the Himalayan belt during the monsoon, the frequency, intensity, and unpredictability of these disasters have sharply increased in recent years. This phenomenon is closely linked to climate change, altered monsoon dynamics, and the fragile geology of the region.

    Why in the News?

    Uttarakhand and parts of Himachal Pradesh have witnessed back-to-back extreme rainfall events over the last month, leading to landslides, mudslides, flash floods, and large-scale disruption. The striking fact is not just the death toll, but the scale of surplus rainfall, 34% above normal in August and 67% above normal in early September. Such heavy rainfall, while common in coastal states like Kerala or Meghalaya, is catastrophic in the Himalayas where steep slopes, loose soil, and fragile ecosystems amplify the risks.

    Why is rainfall unusually high in Uttarakhand this season?

    1. Active monsoon systems: Consecutive low-pressure systems from the Bay of Bengal have travelled farther north than usual, dumping large amounts of rain in the Himalayan belt.
    2. Surplus rainfall data: Northwestern India received 34% surplus rainfall in August and over 67% surplus rainfall in early September.
    3. Record-breaking events: Udhampur (J&K) recorded 630 mm in 24 hours, equivalent to a year’s rainfall in Rajkot, Gujarat; Leh recorded 59 mm in 48 hours, highest since 1973.

    Why are hilly regions more vulnerable to disasters?

    1. Fragile geology: Extreme rainfall triggers landslides, mudslides, and flash floods as rainwater drags soil, rocks, and debris downhill.
    2. River choke-points: When streams are blocked, water gushes into settlements, destroying roads and bridges.
    3. Comparative impact: While 300 mm of rain in Goa or Kerala drains into the sea, the same amount in Uttarakhand leads to catastrophic slope failure.
    4. Recent examples: Landslides across Mandi, Kullu, Dharali, Tharali, and Jammu in the past two weeks illustrate cascading effects.

    How is climate change altering monsoon dynamics?

    1. Southward shift of western disturbances: Once dominant in winters, these systems are increasingly interacting with the summer monsoon, intensifying rainfall events in the Himalayas.
    2. Global warming: Rising temperatures are linked to changing wind patterns and higher atmospheric moisture.
    3. Arctic connection: Melting Arctic sea ice may be influencing jet streams, further complicating rainfall behaviour.
    4. Future risks: Longer dry spells interspersed with intense rainfall events are likely to define Himalayan monsoons.

    What does this mean for Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh?

    1. Human cost: Frequent deaths, loss of livelihoods, and displacement.
    2. Economic disruption: Road blockages, tourism losses, and damage to hydro projects.
    3. Policy challenge: Need for climate-resilient infrastructure, stricter land-use regulations, and predictive weather modelling.

    Conclusion

    The Uttarakhand landslides are a grim reminder that the Himalayas, often called the “third pole”, are at the frontline of climate change. Extreme rainfall patterns, when coupled with unregulated urbanization and fragile geology, amplify disaster risks. Building climate-resilient infrastructure, enhancing early warning systems, and ensuring ecological sensitivity in planning are essential for safeguarding lives and livelihoods in these vulnerable mountain states.

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

    Linkage: The Uttarakhand landslides highlight how Himalayan states are increasingly vulnerable to climate change–induced extreme rainfall, cloudbursts, and landslides due to fragile geology. Similarly, coastal states face rising sea levels, cyclones, and saline intrusion, threatening lives and livelihoods. Thus, climate change amplifies both mountain hazards and coastal vulnerabilities, making India’s geography uniquely exposed.

  • Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)

    Why in the News?

    Brazil, the host of COP30, has proposed the Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF) to finance the conservation of standing forests.

    What is Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF)?

    • Nature: A global blended finance fund that pays Tropical Forest Countries (TFCs) per hectare of forest conserved.
    • Adjustments: Deductions made for deforestation or degradation.
    • Equity Provision: At least 20% of payments reserved for Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs).
    • Monitoring: Payments tracked via satellite systems and managed by a TFFF Secretariat.
    • Relation to REDD+: Complements but does not replace REDD+; no carbon credits or project-based offsets.

    Financial Mechanism:

    • Core Instrument: Tropical Forest Investment Fund (TFIF) under a Multilateral Development Bank (likely World Bank).
    • Funding Sources:
      • Sponsors (20%): High-income countries and philanthropies, via concessional loans/grants.
      • Market Investors (80%): Institutional investors, sovereign wealth funds, university endowments.
    • Investment Strategy: Invests in liquid public bonds (US Treasuries), corporate bonds (Apple), green/blue bonds; excludes fossil fuels.
    • Returns & Payments: Earnings from investment funds result-based payments to TFCs, with 2% annual increase for inflation.

    Key Hurdles:

    • Financing Burden: Global South may indirectly finance its own conservation as TFIF invests in their markets with higher borrowing costs.
    • Credit Rating Dependence: Returns hinge on ratings by Fitch, S&P, Moody’s.
    • Geopolitical Risk: Reliance on World Bank (US dominance) may skew control.
    • IPLC Gap: Despite pledges, historically Indigenous Peoples & Local Communities (IPLCs) receive <1% of climate aid.
    • Forest Definitions: Disputes over canopy thresholds (20–30%) may disadvantage sparser forest nations.

    Back2Basics: REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation plus)

    • Launch: 2008 as a UN collaborative initiative (FAO, UNDP, UNEP); now >65 partner countries.
    • Framework: Under UNFCCC; incentivizes developing nations to cut emissions and improve forest carbon stocks.
    • ‘+’ Component: Adds conservation, sustainable management, and carbon stock enhancement.
    • Objectives: Financial incentives for verified actions in (1) reducing deforestation, (2) reducing degradation, (3) conservation, (4) sustainable management, (5) carbon enhancement.
    • Mechanism: Countries prepare national strategies, monitor/report, and get results-based payments for verified emission reductions.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?

    (a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB)*

    (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

    (c) The New Development Bank (NDB)

    (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

     

  • How serious is the global plastic pollution crisis?

    Introduction

    Plastic—once hailed as a symbol of modern convenience—has now become a global menace. Its non-biodegradable nature, rising consumption, and weak waste management systems have led to an unprecedented ecological and socio-economic challenge. This year’s World Environment Day theme, Ending Plastic Pollution, reflects the international recognition of the crisis. The issue cuts across dimensions of environment, economy, health, governance, and ethics, making it a critical topic for civil services preparation.

    Why is Plastic Pollution Making Headlines?

    Plastic consumption and waste generation are reaching historic highs. In 2024 alone, 500 million tonnes of plastic were produced, generating 400 million tonnes of waste. The OECD projects that if current trends persist, plastic waste could almost triple to 1.2 billion tonnes by 2060. Such data marks a tipping point in human-environment relations. For the first time, experts warn that by mid-century there may be more plastic in the ocean than fish, a striking reversal of natural balance.

    How Severe is the Plastic Pollution Crisis?

    1. Rising consumption: Plastics production doubled between 2000 and 2019, reaching 460 million tonnes.
    2. Waste surge: Global plastic waste touched 353 million tonnes in 2019, with packaging alone contributing 40%.
    3. Recycling failure: Only 9% of waste is recycled; 50% ends up in landfills, and 22% escapes into open environments.
    4. Oceanic threat: About 11 million tonnes enter oceans annually, adding to the estimated 200 million tonnes already present.
    5. Climate connection: Plastics contribute 3.4% of global GHG emissions and could consume 19% of the global carbon budget by 2040.

    Why is Plastic Pollution So Difficult to Manage?

    1. Non-biodegradability: Plastics fragment into micro- and nano-particles, contaminating soil, water, and even human bloodstreams.
    2. Global spread: From Mount Everest to ocean trenches, no ecosystem is spared.
    3. Health risks: Microplastics pose risks to food chains, water safety, and respiratory and cardiovascular health.
    4. Economic burden: Poorer nations, with weak waste management, face disproportionate costs of uncontrolled plastic dumping.

    What Global Remedies Are Being Proposed?

    1. Legally binding agreement: In 2022, all 193 UN member states pledged at UNEA-5 to negotiate an international treaty to end plastic pollution.
    2. UNEP target: Ambition to cut plastic waste by 80% in two decades through innovation, design, and recycling.
    3. Reduce single-use plastics: Phasing out unnecessary items made from petrochemical feedstock is urgent.
    4. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Holding manufacturers accountable through deposit refunds, landfill taxes, and pay-as-you-throw systems.
    5. Recycling revolution: Currently, only 6% of plastics come from recycled sources. Scaling this up requires technology and market incentives.

    What Role Do Individuals and Media Play?

    1. Greener alternatives: Shifting to traditional, reusable products and eco-friendly materials.
    2. Awareness campaigns: Media’s power in shaping consumer habits and pressuring governments is significant.
    3. Behavioural change: Collective reduction in consumption is as important as systemic reform.

    Conclusion

    Plastic pollution exemplifies the contradictions of modern development—where convenience has bred crisis. The data suggests humanity stands at a civilisational crossroads: either continue unsustainable consumption or pivot towards circular, sustainable economies. For India, with its population, coastline, and developmental challenges, the issue is not peripheral but central to environmental governance, climate action, and public health.

    UPSC Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

    Linkage: Plastic and oil pollution are both marine pollutants of petrochemical origin, threatening biodiversity, fisheries, and coastal livelihoods. Like oil, plastics enter oceans in massive quantities (11 MT annually), fragmenting into microplastics that disrupt ecosystems. For India, with a long coastline and dependence on marine resources, the risks of livelihood loss, food insecurity, and ecological imbalance are particularly acute.

  • Bengaluru gets its 2nd Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS)

    Why in the News?

    The Karnataka government declared 8.6 acres of green cover at Cantonment Railway Colony in Bengaluru as a Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS), the second such site in the city after Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra (GKVK).

    About Biodiversity Heritage Sites (BHS):

    • Legal Basis: Recognized under Section 37(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 as ecologically sensitive areas of high biodiversity.
    • Notifying Authority: The State Government, in consultation with local bodies, can declare an area as a BHS.
    • Objective: Conserves wild and domesticated species, including rare, threatened, and keystone species, vital for ecological balance.
    • Significance: Marked as ecologically fragile zones, essential for sustaining local ecosystems and long-term sustainability.
    • Community Role: Local communities and institutions are actively involved in management and protection.
    • Restrictions Put: Declaration does NOT restrict customary uses; aims to enhance quality of life through conservation.
    • Institutional Support: State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) assist in proposing, managing, and monitoring BHS.
    • First BHS in India: Nallur Tamarind Grove, Bengaluru, Karnataka, notified in 2007.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.

    2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • In news: Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

    Why in the News?

    The Union Environment Ministry has approved the capture and translocation of eight tigers from Tadoba-Andhari and Pench reserves to the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (STR) in western Maharashtra.

    In news: Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

    About Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (STR):

    • Overview: Situated in the Sahyadri Range, Western Ghats (Maharashtra), spanning districts of Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Ratnagiri.
    • Status: Declared Tiger Reserve (2010); part of UNESCO Western Ghats World Heritage Site (2012).
    • Geography: Dominated by Shivsagar (Koyna) and Vasant Sagar (Warana) reservoirs.
    • Vegetation: Moist evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist & dry deciduous forests; endemic trees like karvi, bamboo, Terminalia, Emblica.
    • Fauna: Bengal tiger, leopard, dhole, gaur, antelopes, mouse deer, giant squirrel. Birds include hornbills, vultures, river tern.
    • Tiger Status: Tigers absent for years; 5–9 present since 2018 (as per camera trap evidence).
    • Corridor Linkages: Connected to Radhanagari WLS (north) and Anshi–Dandeli TR (south, Karnataka), forming a key Western Ghats corridor.
    • Ecological Role: Secures catchments of Koyna & Warna rivers, crucial for farming and livelihoods.

    Need for Tiger translocation:

    • Prey base: Reserve has prey-rich habitat but lacks a stable breeding tiger population.
    • Other benefits: Prevents local extinction, strengthens corridor connectivity, supports Project Tiger, conserves biodiversity, and secures river watersheds.
    [UPSC 2017] From the ecological point of view, which one of the following assumes importance in being a good link between the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats?

    Options: (a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve* (b) Nallamala Forest (c) Nagarhole National Park (d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve

     

  • BS-VII Emission Norms

    Why in the News?

    To align India’s automobile sector with global standards, the government is planning to introduce BS VII emission norms by 2026-27.

    About BS7 Norms:

    • Overview: India’s equivalent of Euro 7 emission standards, aimed at reducing vehicular pollution and aligning with global benchmarks.
    • Coverage: Applies uniformly to cars, vans, buses, trucks, petrol, diesel, hybrid, and electric vehicles.
    • On-Board Monitoring (OBM): New system to monitor tailpipe emissions in real time, covering NOx, ammonia, PM, engine gases.
    • Non-Exhaust Regulation: First-time regulation of brake dust (PM) and tyre microplastics.
    • EV Standards: Introduces battery safety, durability, and longevity index to lower raw material use and build consumer confidence.
    • Digital Safeguards: Ensures vehicles are not tampered with and remain within emission limits.
    • Testing Scope: Expands checks to real driving conditions beyond lab-based cycles.

    Key Differences: BS6 vs BS7

    • OBD vs OBM: BS6 used On-Board Diagnostics (OBD); BS7 brings OBM for direct emission monitoring.
    • NOx Standards: BS6 allowed 60 mg/km petrol, 80 mg/km diesel; BS7 sets uniform 60 mg/km.
    • Coverage: BS6 regulated exhaust only; BS7 adds non-exhaust (brakes, tyres).
    • EV Inclusion: BS6 ignored EVs; BS7 regulates battery life, safety, and replacement cycles.
    • Testing: BS6 relied on defined test cycles; BS7 uses broader real-world conditions.
    • Technology Push: BS7 compels automakers towards advanced emission-control systems and turbo, direct-injection engines.
    • Cost Factor: BS7 compliance raises vehicle costs; some older models may be discontinued.

    History of Emission Norms in India:

    Year / Period Key Development
    1991 Mass emission norms introduced for petrol vehicles.
    1992 Mass emission norms introduced for diesel vehicles.
    April 1995 Mandatory catalytic converters in new petrol cars in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai; unleaded petrol (ULP) introduced.
    2000 Introduction of Euro I equivalent “India 2000” norms for passenger and commercial vehicles; stricter norms for two-wheelers.
    2001 Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II (BS II) norms introduced in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata.
    August 2002 First Auto Fuel Policy announced, outlining emission and fuel roadmap up to 2010.
    April 2005 Bharat Stage III (BS III) norms implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India continued with BS II.
    April 2010 Bharat Stage IV (BS IV) implemented in 13 metro cities; rest of India adopted BS III.
    October 2014 BS IV extended to 20 more cities.
    2013 Auto Fuel Policy 2025 submitted to MoPNG (Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas), outlining roadmap up to 2025.
    April 2017 Nationwide implementation of BS IV.
    April 2020 Direct leap to BS VI (skipping BS V) due to severe pollution in Delhi NCR.
    Upcoming (BS VII) To be aligned with Euro 7 standards: stricter norms, On-Board Monitoring (OBM), coverage of brake & tyre emissions, and EV battery standards.

     

    [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Oil Pool Account of Government of India was dismantled with effect from 1-4-2002.

    2. Subsidies on PDS kerosene and domestic LPG are borne by Consolidated Fund of India.

    3. An expert committee headed by Dr. R.A. Mashelkar to formulate a national auto fuel policy recommended that Bharat Stage-II Emission Norms should be applied throughout the country by 1 April, 2004.

    Which of these statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • Researchers develop Red Ivy Plant-Based Wound-Healing Pad

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at JNTBGRI has developed a multifunctional wound-healing pad using nanomaterials, inspired by the red ivy plant (Strobilanthes alternata), traditionally used in folk medicine.

    About the Red Ivy Plant:

    • Overview: Strobilanthes alternata, locally called murikooti pacha, belonging to the Acanthaceae family.
    • Habitat: Found abundantly in tropical regions, including India.
    • Traditional Use: Used in folk medicine for treating cuts and wounds.
    • Scientific Discovery: JNTBGRI, Palode isolated acteoside, a natural bioactive compound, for the first time in this plant.
    • Therapeutic Use: Acteoside, known elsewhere for medicinal activity, showed high wound-healing efficacy at 0.2% concentration in red ivy.

    Features of the Wound-Healing Pad:

    • Design: India’s first multifunctional herbal wound dressing pad, combining traditional knowledge with nanotechnology.
    • Components: Electro-spun nanofiber layer (biodegradable, porous, antimicrobial barrier); Acteoside + neomycin sulfate blend (healing and infection control); Sodium alginate sponge (absorbs exudates); Activated carbon layer (controls odour).
    • Significance: Affordable, scalable, and a model of herbal medicine integrated with modern nanotech innovation.
    [UPSC 2021] Which one of the following is used in preparing a natural mosquito repellent?

    Options:

    (a) Congress grass (b) Elephant grass (c) Lemongrass* (d) Nut grass

     

  • Vultures and Pandemic Prevention

    Why in the News?

    Vultures, vital for carcass disposal and disease control, are key to pandemic preparedness.

    About Vulture Species in India:

    • Overview: Vultures are among 22 global species of large scavenger birds, found mostly in tropics and subtropics.
    • Ecological Role: Serve as nature’s garbage collectors, preventing disease spread and maintaining balance in ecosystems.
    • Indian Diversity: India hosts 9 species — Oriental white-backed, Long-billed, Slender-billed, Himalayan, Red-headed, Egyptian, Bearded, Cinereous, and Eurasian Griffon.

    Vultures and Pandemic Prevention

    Distribution and Population Trends:

    • Historic Abundance: In the 1980s, India had over 40 million vultures, often in large groups near carcass dumps.
    • Population Crash: Since the 1990s, numbers have declined by over 95%, mainly due to diclofenac poisoning from veterinary use.
    • Flyway Connection: Vultures are part of the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), linking breeding sites in Central Asia with South Asia’s wintering zones.
    • Global Relevance: The CAF spans 30+ countries, making vulture conservation a regional and international public health concern.

    Vultures and Pandemic Preparedness:

    • Carcass Disposal: By consuming dead animals, vultures stop spread of pathogens such as anthrax, Clostridium botulinum, rabies.
    • Bio-Monitor Role: As first responders at carcasses, they act as natural surveillance systems, reducing risks of zoonotic spillover.
    • Conservation Gap: Protection of vultures is rarely included in One Health strategies, despite being low-cost compared to pandemic response.
    • Community Involvement: Local communities coexisting with vultures can aid in awareness, conservation, and disease monitoring, but remain underutilised.
    [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:

    (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them

    (b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal*

    (c) scarcity of food available to them

    (d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them