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GS Paper: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

  • Revising Guidelines to declare Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ)

    Why in the News?

    The Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (SC-NBWL) has decided to review and revise the 2011 guidelines on the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) around wildlife sanctuaries and national parks.

    What are Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs)?

    • Overview: ESZs, also called Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs), are areas notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) around Protected Areas (PAs) like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
    • Purpose:
      • Act as “shock absorbers” to protect areas by regulating potentially harmful activities.
      • Serve as transition zones from highly protected to less protected ecosystems.
      • Help conserve biodiversity, maintain landscape connectivity, and prevent fragmentation of habitats.
    • Legal Basis:
      • Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, particularly Section 3(2)(v).
      • Rule 5(1) of Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.
    • Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002: Recommended declaring 10 km radius around PAs as default ESZ.
    • Demarcation Process:
      • ESZ boundaries vary in width based on ecological sensitivity and ground realities.
      • Factors considered: species presence, migration routes, landscape linkage, human settlements, etc.
    • Activity Zonation:
      • Prohibited: Commercial mining, polluting industries, major hydro projects, wood logging.
      • Regulated: Tree felling, large-scale agriculture change, road widening, tourism infrastructure.
      • Permitted: Rainwater harvesting, organic farming, green energy use.
    • Present Status:
      • 347 final notifications issued.
      • Where no ESZ is notified, a default 10-km ESZ is applicable (SC 2022 ruling).

    2011 Guidelines on ESZs:

    • Issued by MoEFCC to standardize and guide the process of ESZ declaration.
    • Key Features:
      • Emphasized flexibility and site-specific demarcation.
      • Classified activities into permitted, regulated, prohibited.
      • Directed preparation of a Zonal Master Plan (ZMP) within 2 years of ESZ notification.
      • Called for community involvement, scientific input, and buffer management.

    Recent Context:

    • Reasons Behind: Revision One-size-fits-all (10-km blanket rule) is not effective:
      • Urban examples: Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Mumbai), Asola Bhatti Sanctuary (Delhi).
      • In Himachal Pradesh, ~65% area already under forest cover.
      • Kerala: Fear of new sanctuary leading to more restrictions.
    • Over-generalized: Existing guidelines unsuitable for marine sanctuaries, need ecosystem-specific norms.
    [UPSC 2014] With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

    2. The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities in those zones except agriculture.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

     

  • UNEP Frontiers 2025 Report on Legacy Pollutants

    Why in the News?

    The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in its latest Frontiers 2025 report titled The Weight of Time, has warned that increased river and coastal flooding caused by climate change could unearth dangerous legacy pollutants from water bodies.

    About Legacy Pollutants:

    • Definition: Legacy pollutants refer to toxic substances like heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that continue to remain in the environment even decades after their use has been banned or restricted.
    • Examples:
      • Heavy Metals: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic.
      • Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
        • Pesticides: DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), Aldrin, Endrin, Chlordane.
        • Industrial Chemicals: PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), Dioxins, Furans.
        • By-products: Produced from incineration, metal smelting, and waste burning.
    • Persistence: These substances are highly resistant to environmental degradation and accumulate in riverbeds, lakes, estuaries, and other sediment-rich ecosystems.
    • Health Hazards: Even at low exposure levels, legacy pollutants can cause: Neurotoxicity (nervous system damage), Immunotoxicity (immune disruption), Hepatotoxicity (liver damage), Reproductive toxicity (infertility, birth defects), Carcinogenicity (various cancers), Endocrine disruption etc.
    • Sources:
      • Past industrial practices, use of banned agricultural chemicals, and obsolete pesticide stockpiles.
      • Improperly managed chemical landfills, which still hold an estimated 4.8–7 million tonnes of POP waste globally.

    UNEP Frontiers 2025 Report on Legacy Pollutants

    Key Highlights of Frontiers 2025: The Weight of Time (UNEP):

    • Retreat of Toxins: Climate change-induced flooding can unearth and redistribute toxic legacy pollutants from contaminated sediments into the environment and food chain.
    • How? Floodwaters re-suspend heavy metals and POPs trapped in sediment.
    • Case Studies Cited:
      • Hurricane Harvey (Texas, 2017): Released mercury and carcinogenic chemicals from flood-induced sediment dispersal into Galveston Bay.
      • Niger Delta Floods (Nigeria, 2012): Mobilised Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil-contaminated sediments.
      • Pakistan Floods (2010 & 2022): Washed away obsolete pesticide stockpiles, spreading DDT and other POPs into floodwaters and soils.
    • India-Specific Findings:
      • Sediments of Ganga, Hindon, and Vaigai Rivers show dangerously high levels of Cadmium.
      • Cadmium is a known carcinogen and endocrine disruptor, with potential to cause kidney, bone, and reproductive harm.
      • Ayad and Vaigai Rivers also showed up deadly levels of Lead concentration.
    [UPSC 2016] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?

    1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

     

  • UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

    Why in the News?

    The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations are facing a credibility crisis, as years of underperformance, weak accountability, and neglect of developing countries’ concerns have created growing frustration.

    About the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

    • Overview: The UNFCCC is an international treaty adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to address climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere.
    • Entry into Force: The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994 and currently has 197 Parties, including all UN member states.
    • Governing Body – COP: The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body under the UNFCCC, which meets annually to assess progress and set new targets.
    • Consensus-Based Process: The Convention operates on the principle of consensus, meaning all Parties must agree for a decision to be adopted.
    • Article 2 Objective: The objective of the UNFCCC, as per Article 2, is to stabilize GHG levels at a point that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
    • Key Agreements: The UNFCCC framework led to major global climate agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
    • Institutional Structure: It has three main institutional bodies:
      1. SBSTA: Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
      2. SBI: Subsidiary Body for Implementation
      3. UNFCCC Secretariat: Headquartered in Bonn, Germany
    • Party Classifications:
      • Annex I: Developed countries (OECD + Economies in Transition); Obligated to reduce GHG emissions and submit regular reports.
      • Annex II: Subset of Annex I (OECD members); Required to provide financial and technological support to developing countries.
      • Non-Annex I: Developing countries; No binding emission targets but eligible for support and encouraged to act voluntarily.
      • LDCs (Least Developed Countries): Low-income, highly vulnerable nations; Receive priority support under UNFCCC for adaptation and capacity building.

    India and the UNFCCC:

    • Ratification: India ratified the UNFCCC in 1993 and has participated actively in all COP meetings since then.
    • Party Classification: India is classified as a Non- Annex I Party, meaning it has no binding emission reduction targets under the Convention.
    • Paris Agreement Commitments: Under the Paris Agreement (2015), India submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), including:
      • Reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels
      • Achieving 50% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030
    • Climate Diplomacy:
      • India advocates the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–RC) in all negotiations.
      • India co-founded the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and launched the LiFE Movement (Lifestyle for Environment) to promote sustainable lifestyles.
      • India has opposed unilateral trade measures such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) at multiple climate forums.

    Issues with the UNFCCC Process:

    • Weak Enforcement: The process lacks enforcement mechanisms; countries that fail to meet commitments face no penalties.
    • Consensus Delays: The consensus-based approach often leads to delays and diluted agreements due to the ability of a few nations to block progress.
    • Unmet Commitments: Developed countries have not fulfilled the promised $100 billion per year in climate finance, which was due by 2020.
    • Neglected Developing Country Needs: Critical needs for adaptation finance, capacity building, and technology transfer remain largely unmet for developing nations.
    • Controversial Host Nations: The selection of host countries (e.g., UAE for COP28 and Azerbaijan for COP29) has drawn criticism due to their fossil fuel dependence.
    • Demand for Reforms: At the Bonn Climate Conference (2024), developing countries called for reforms such as:
      • Shifting to majority-based decision-making
      • Imposing limits on fossil fuel industry participation in climate talks
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.

    2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms (CBAM)

    Why in the News?

    BRICS group has condemned and rejected the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and other similar climate-linked trade measures.

    What Is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

    • Overview: It is a climate-related import duty imposed by the European Union on goods whose production involves higher carbon emissions than what is permitted in the EU.
    • Policy Framework: CBAM is part of the EU’s “Fit for 55” climate package, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.
    • Scope of Coverage: The policy requires importers to declare the volume and embedded carbon emissions of certain goods, such as steel, aluminium, cement, fertiliser, hydrogen, and electricity.
    • Compliance Mechanism: To offset these emissions, EU importers must surrender CBAM certificates, priced based on the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
    • Carbon Price Adjustment: If a non-EU producer has already paid a carbon price in their country, that amount can be deducted from the CBAM charge.
    • Implementation Timeline: The transitional phase of CBAM is underway from 2023 to 2025, and the definitive regime begins on January 1, 2026.

    Issues with CBAM:

    • Trade Discrimination Concerns: Developing countries, including India and China, argue that CBAM imposes unilateral, punitive, and discriminatory trade restrictions under the guise of environmental protection.
    • Violation of Climate Agreements: It is viewed as a violation of Paris Agreement, which upholds the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
    • Neglect of Historical Emissions: Countries in the Global South contend that climate-related trade tools like CBAM ignore historical emissions and disproportionately impact countries still reliant on carbon-intensive development.

    Implications of CBAM for India:

    • Impact on Exports: Indian exports, particularly in iron, steel, aluminium, and cement, will face additional scrutiny and carbon charges under CBAM, reducing their competitiveness.
    • Carbon Taxation Timeline: From January 1, 2026, carbon taxes will be levied on each shipment to the EU in specific sectors, ranging from 19.8% to 52.7% in potential carbon levies.
    • High Carbon Intensity Risk: India’s high carbon intensity, primarily due to its 75% dependence on coal, makes its products more vulnerable to CBAM tariffs.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: Carbon markets are likely to be one of the most widespread tools in the fight against climate change.

    Statement-II: Carbon markets transfer resources from the private sector to the State.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I ** (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

     

  • Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

    Why in the News?

    The Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)—Kerala’s State bird and a symbol of forest biodiversity—was spotted far outside its usual habitat.

    Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

    About the Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)

    • Overview: The Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) is the largest hornbill species found in India.
    • Attributes: It is known for its striking yellow casque on the upper mandible, which is hollow and used in vocalisation and courtship.
    • Official Recognition: It is the State Bird of Kerala (as well as Arunachal Pradesh) and is revered in many indigenous cultures for its majestic appearance.
    • Conservation Status: It is listed as Endangered by the IUCN and is protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Habitat: It primarily inhabit evergreen and moist deciduous forests, especially in the Western Ghats, the Himalayan foothills, and Northeast India.
    • Prey Behaviour: They are frugivorous, feeding mainly on figs and other forest fruits, but they may occasionally consume small mammals, birds, and insects.
    • Ecological Significance:  They are known as ‘forest engineers’ or ‘farmers of the forest’, they play a key role in seed dispersal of tropical trees, indicating the health and balance of their forest ecosystems.
    [UPSC 2016] In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? Options: (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats *

     

  • Rising seas, shifting lives and a test of democratic values

    Why in the News?

    India is seeing a worrying rise in people being forced to leave their homes due to climate change along its coasts, revealing serious gaps in how the country manages the environment and supports affected communities.

    What are the socio-economic impacts of coastal climate change?

    • Displacement of Coastal Communities: Rising sea levels, saltwater intrusion, and erosion force people from traditional coastal villages to resettlement colonies. Eg: In Satabhaya, Odisha, entire villages have been submerged, displacing residents with little access to sustainable livelihoods.
    • Loss of Traditional Livelihoods: Coastal degradation affects fishing and agriculture, disrupting long-standing economic systems. Eg: In Honnavar, Karnataka, fishing communities face livelihood loss due to mangrove destruction and tourism development.
    • Forced Migration to Urban Informal Sectors: Displaced people migrate to cities and enter unprotected labour markets, often in exploitative conditions. Eg: Many end up as construction or brick kiln workers in cities like Mumbai or Chennai, without labour rights.
    • Labour Exploitation and Gender Vulnerability: Migrants, especially women, face debt bondage, abuse, and trafficking due to informal employment and lack of legal safeguards. Eg: Displaced women entering domestic work are underpaid and vulnerable to exploitation.
    • Social Inequality and Lack of Legal Protection: The absence of targeted legal frameworks leads to exclusion from welfare schemes and labour protections, worsening socio-economic inequality. Eg: Existing laws like the BOCW Act, 1996, do not cover climate migrants, leaving them unprotected.

    How does climate-induced displacement test India’s democratic values?

    • Right to Life and Dignity (Article 21): Climate displacement challenges the constitutional guarantee of life with dignity, as displaced communities often lack shelter, healthcare, and livelihood.
    • Denial of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (Article 19(1)(a)): Many infrastructure and tourism projects along the coast proceed without consulting local communities, violating their freedom of expression and participation in governance.
    • Suppression of Protest and Association (Article 19(1)(b) and 19(1)(c)): Environmental defenders and activists resisting unjust displacement face police action, surveillance, and criminalisation, undermining their freedom to protest and form associations.

    Why is a legal framework for climate migrants essential?

    • To Recognise and Protect the Rights of the Displaced: Climate migrants often lose access to housing, work, and basic services. A legal framework ensures their right to life and dignity is upheld under Article 21 of the Constitution. Eg: Villagers displaced from Satabhaya, Odisha, lack legal recognition as climate migrants, preventing access to structured rehabilitation.
    • To Fill Gaps in Existing Laws and Policies: Current laws like the Disaster Management Act, 2005 and CRZ Notification, 2019 focus on emergency response or environmental regulation, not long-term rehabilitation or labour rights. Eg: The NAPCC identifies vulnerability but has no mechanism to integrate displaced people into labour or housing policies.
    • To Prevent Labour Exploitation and Ensure Social Justice: Without legal safeguards, climate migrants, especially in urban informal sectors, face wage theft, abuse, and gendered violence. Eg: Migrants working in brick kilns or as domestic workers in cities remain outside labour codes, exposing them to exploitation.

    What is the role of local movements in protecting coastal communities?

    • Grassroots Resistance Against Destructive Projects: Local movements mobilize communities to protest against unsustainable infrastructure and industrial projects that threaten coastal ecosystems. Eg: The Save Satabhaya campaign in Odisha resisted sea-erosion-driven displacement and demanded proper rehabilitation.
    • Advocacy for Environmental Justice and Rights: These movements highlight environmental injustices, defend the livelihoods of traditional communities, and demand informed consent and legal protection. Eg: Pattuvam Mangrove Protection Movement.
    • Challenging Development Narratives and Policy Gaps: Local struggles question top-down development policies, push for sustainable alternatives, and expose policy loopholes that ignore climate and social impacts. Eg: Protests against the Adani port expansion at Ennore Creek, Tamil Nadu.

    Which reforms can ensure rights-based climate migration policies? (Way forward)

    • Legal Recognition of Climate Migrants: Integrate climate-induced displacement into national migration and disaster policies to ensure affected individuals are officially recognized and protected under law.
    • Labour Code Reforms for Informal Workers: Amend existing labour laws to include climate migrants, especially those in vulnerable sectors like construction and domestic work, ensuring fair wages, social security, and workplace protections.
    • Participatory Coastal Zone Management: Redesign Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules to prioritize ecological sustainability and the rights of local communities, with mandatory community consent before approving commercial projects.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] What is sea surface temperature rise? How does it affect the formation of tropical cyclones?

    Linkage: The article highlights “rising seas, saltwater intrusion” and “coastal degradation” as impacts of climate change. This question directly relates to a key oceanic phenomenon influenced by climate change and its effect on extreme weather events like cyclones.

  • Species in news: Garcinia kusumae

    Why in the News?

    Researchers in Assam have discovered a new tree species, Garcinia kusumae, locally called thoikora, adding to the Garcinia genus in a notable botanical find.

    About Garcinia kusumae:

    • Species Identity: Garcinia kusumae is a newly discovered evergreen tree species that is endemic to Assam, India.
    • Genus and Local Name: It belongs to the Garcinia genus, locally called thoikora in Assamese.
    • Discovery: It was discovered in 2024 by Jatindra Sarma, during a field survey in Bamunbari, Baksa district.
    • Botanical Traits: It is dioecious, grows up to 18 metres, flowers between February and April, and fruits between May and June.
    • Distinct Features: It differs from similar species by having up to 15 staminate flowers per fascicle, fewer stamens, and blackish resinous berries.
    • Ethnobotanical Uses: Its fruit is used in sherbet, fish curries, and for diabetes and dysentery remedies; the seed aril is eaten raw with condiments.

    What is the Garcinia Genus?

    • Taxonomy: Garcinia is the largest genus in the Clusiaceae family, comprising trees and shrubs.
    • Geographical Spread: It is found in tropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australasia, especially in rainforests.
    • Notable Characteristics: The genus is known for floral diversity, medicinal value, and culinary applications.
    • Presence in India: India hosts 33 species and 7 varieties of Garcinia, with Assam having 12 species and 3 varieties.
    • Famous Species: Commonly known species include Garcinia indica (kokum), Garcinia cowa, and Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen).
    • Utility and Significance: It is important for ethnobotanical uses, rural livelihoods, and climate-resilient forestry.
    • Traditional Practices: Several species are used in traditional food, medicine, and rituals.
    [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.

    In which part of India has it been discovered?

    Options: (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast

     

  • New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG)

    Why in the News?

    With focus shifting to COP30, climate finance is in the spotlight as the Fourth International Financing for Development Conference (FfD4) works to finalise the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) — a more ambitious target to replace the unmet $100 billion annual pledge.

    About New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG):

    • Overview: It is a new global climate finance target under negotiation to replace the unmet $100 billion pledge made by developed countries in 2009.
    • Basis: It is being framed through the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA).
    • Minimum Starting Point: The goal will begin at a minimum of $100 billion per year, with future revisions based on real needs of developing nations.
    • Areas to be Covered: NCQG supports mitigation, adaptation, and resilience, with an explicit focus on the needs of developing countries.

    How it differs from earlier Pledge?

    • From Political to Need-Based: The earlier $100 billion was a political promise, while NCQG is a data-driven, needs-based goal.
    • Backed by National Priorities: Funding estimates will use developing countries’ own assessments and climate plans.
    • Greater Transparency and Trust: NCQG seeks to rebuild trust by addressing the trust deficit from past failures and improving accountability.

    True Scale of Climate Finance Needs:

    • Requirement: As per UNFCCC (2021), developing countries may need $6 trillion/year by 2030 to meet their climate goals.
    • Global Energy Transition Costs: A low-carbon global transition could need $4–6 trillion annually until 2050.
    • Renewable Energy Goals: Tripling renewables by 2030, agreed at COP28, may cost $30 trillion (IRENA).
    • India’s Stand: India has proposed an NCQG of $1 trillion/year, with a focus on grants and concessional finance, avoiding debt-heavy solutions.
    [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?

    Options: (a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB) (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) (c) The New Development Bank (NDB) (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

     

  • Places in News: Kariyachalli Island

    Why in the News?

    The Tamil Nadu government, with World Bank support, has launched a ₹50 crore restoration project for the sinking Kariyachalli Island.

    About Kariyachalli Island:

    • Overview: Kariyachalli Island is one of the 21 uninhabited islands in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park.
    • Geographic Location: It lies 4 km south of Sippikulam and 20 km northeast of Thoothukudi, between Rameswaram and Thoothukudi.
    • Made of Reef Sediments: The island is a low-lying landform made of reef debris, sand dunes, spits, and sandy plains.
    • Biodiversity Hotspot: Located in India’s coral reef zone, it supports 4,300+ marine species, including 132 coral types and the endangered dugong.
    • Ecological Importance: It has seagrass beds and coral reefs that provide food and shelter for marine life.
    • Natural Coastal Shield: Kariyachalli acts as a barrier against cyclones and tsunamis, helping protect the Tamil Nadu coast.
    • Historical Significance: It played a role in mitigating the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami impact.

    Why is it sinking?

    • Rapid Land Loss: The island has shrunk by over 70%, from 20.85 ha in 1969 to under 6 ha in 2024.
    • High Tide Erosion: At high tide, only 3.14 ha remains, per an IIT Madras (2025) study.
    • Wave and Sediment Pressure: Wave action, sediment loss, and lack of natural shoreline defense are accelerating erosion.
    • Climate Change Impact: Rising sea levels and coral bleaching have weakened the island’s natural protection.
    • Seagrass Depletion: Loss of seagrass beds has reduced the island’s ability to hold sediments and resist erosion.
    • Extreme Weather Events: Frequent cyclones and storms are making the island more vulnerable.
    • Future Risk: If the current trend continues, Kariyachalli may vanish by 2036.
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?

    Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves (b) Marakkanam Salt Pans (c) Naupada Swamp (d) Rann of Kutch*

     

  • Why Tigers keep migrating?

    Why in the News?

    India’s tiger population is undergoing a major eastward expansion, as young male tigers from central India’s source reserves (like Kanha and Bandhavgarh) disperse into eastern forests (Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal) in search of territory and mates.

    tiger

    Recent Incidents of Tiger Migration:

    • Bandhavgarh (MP) → Palamu (Jharkhand) → Purulia (WB) → Rescued and sent back to Palamu
    • Simlipal (Odisha) → Jharkhand → Lalgarh (WB) → Tiger killed by villagers
    • Tadoba (Maharashtra) → Simlipal (Odisha) → West Bengal → Zeenat the tigress translocated and dispersed

    Back2Basics: Royal Bengal Tiger

    • Declared National Animal of India in 1972 by the Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL).
    • Largest population in India; also found in Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. India harbours 75% of the world’s wild tigers.
    • Occupies habitats such as high mountains, mangrove swamps, grasslands, deciduous forests, evergreen, and shola forests.
    • Ecological Significance:
      • Flagship species: Essential for conservation efforts since it’s the topmost predator in food chain.
      • Umbrella species: Protecting tigers helps conserve other species (through food chain regulation).
    • Protection Status:
      • Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
      • IUCN Red List: Endangered.
      • CITES: Listed in Appendix I.
    • Project Tiger is a wildlife conservation initiative in India that was launched in 1973.

    Behavioural Traits of Tigers Influencing Dispersal:

    • Territorial Independence: Upon maturity, male tigers must leave their natal territory to find exclusive prey-rich zones and mates, triggering long-distance dispersal.
    • Gendered Dispersal:
      • Males are wanderers – they cover vast areas and often cross multiple states.
      • Females are philopatric – they stay close to their birthplace and are usually accepted by nearby relatives.
    • Source-Sink Dynamics:
      • Source forests (e.g. Kanha, Bandhavgarh) produce surplus tigers due to good prey and protection.
      • Sink forests (e.g. Palamu, Dalma) cannot sustain tiger populations without new immigrants.
    • Adaptive but Risk-Prone: Tigers are biologically wired to explore new habitats, even degraded ones, but often face food scarcity, isolation, and human conflict.
    • Prey Dependence and Conflict: In prey-deficient forests, floater tigers’ resort to livestock hunting, increasing the risk of human-tiger conflict.
    • Resilience and Colonisation Instinct: Despite setbacks, tigers attempt to colonise new areas, offering hope for species expansion if supported by proper conservation.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.

    2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.

    3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only*  (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3