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Type: Prelims Only

  • Battle of Karnal (1739)

    Why in the News?

    On February 24, 1739, the Battle of Karnal marked a turning point in the history of Mughal empire.

    About Battle of Karnal 

    • The Battle of Karnal on February 24, 1739, saw Nadir Shah’s Persian army defeat Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’ in under three hours.
    • Despite having 300,000 soldiers, the Mughal army was crushed by Nadir Shah’s 55,000 well-trained troops using modern tactics and superior firearms.
    • Following the victory, Delhi was sacked, 30,000 civilians massacred, and the Mughal treasury looted, including the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne.

    Impact on Mughal Decline

    • Economic Collapse: The Mughal treasury was emptied, crippling military and administrative strength.
    • Weakening Central Power: Governors of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad declared independence.
    • Military Decline: The Mughal army’s outdated tactics were exposed; future invasions (e.g., Ahmad Shah Abdali, 1748-1761) followed.
    • Rise of Regional Powers: The Marathas expanded, eventually capturing Delhi (1771); the Sikhs grew in Punjab.
    • British Expansion: The East India Company took advantage, leading to British rule after 1857.

    PYQ:

    [2019] With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdars and Zamindar?

    1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.

    2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • What is the ‘Quality of Public Expenditure’ Index?

    Why in the News?

    The Quality of Public Expenditure (QPE) Index, developed by the RBI, evaluates how efficiently government funds are used, focusing on expenditure composition and its long-term impact on economic growth.

    About the QPE Index

    • The QPE Index by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) measures how effectively government funds are utilized.
    • It focuses on fiscal discipline, capital investment, and efficient allocation of public resources for long-term growth.
    • Key Indicators of the QPE Index:
    1. Capital Outlay to GDP Ratio: Measures government spending on infrastructure as a percentage of GDP. Higher ratio = better quality expenditure.
    2. Revenue Expenditure to Capital Outlay Ratio: Lower ratio preferred, as excessive spending on salaries & subsidies reduces funds for development.
    3. Development Expenditure to GDP Ratio: Tracks spending in education, healthcare, infrastructure, improving human capital & productivity.
    4. Development Expenditure as % of Total Expenditure:  Higher share indicates better resource allocation.
    5. Interest Payments to Total Expenditure Ratio:  Lower ratio = better debt management & fiscal sustainability.

    Key Findings from RBI’s QPE Index Analysis:

    • 1991-2003: Post-liberalization, focus on reducing fiscal deficit led to a decline in public investment.
    • 2003-2008:  FRBM Act (2003) improved fiscal discipline, increasing capital spending & state revenues.
    • 2008-2013: Global Financial Crisis (GFC) led to higher government spending, increasing fiscal deficits but supporting recovery.
    • 2013-2017: 14th Finance Commission (2015) increased states’ share in central taxes, boosting development expenditure.
    • 2017-2020:  GST implementation challenges affected the Centre’s revenues, but states benefited from higher tax shares.
    • 2020-Present:  Record capital expenditure boosted infrastructure & economic recovery, improving public expenditure quality.

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to Union Budget, which of the following, is/are covered under Non-Plan Expenditure?

    1. Defence-expenditure

    2. Interest payments

    3. Salaries and pensions

    4. Subsidies

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    (d) None

     

  • Rupee-Dollar Swap Auction

    Why in the News?

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) will conduct a $10 billion dollar-rupee swap auction on February 28, 2025, aimed at injecting durable rupee liquidity into the banking system.

    This 3-year forex swap is expected to inject ₹86,000 crore into the banking system at a time when there is a liquidity deficit of ₹1.7 lakh crore in the financial sector.

    What is the RBI’s Forex Swap Auction?

    • Forex swap auctions are a tool used by the RBI to manage liquidity and stabilize financial markets.
    • In return, the RBI will inject rupee liquidity into the banking system.
      • Buy-Sell Swap: RBI buys dollars now and sells them back later (liquidity injection).
      • Sell-Buy Swap: RBI sells dollars now and buys them back later (liquidity absorption).
    • After 3 years, the transaction will be reversed, with the RBI selling dollars back to banks and absorbing rupee liquidity from the system.

    How does it work?

    • Auction Process:
      • Banks bid in the swap auction by quoting the swap rate (forward premium).
      • The lowest premium bids are accepted first (similar to G-sec auctions).
    • Liquidity Injection:
      • Banks sell US dollars to the RBI at the prevailing exchange rate.
      • The RBI provides rupees in exchange, boosting liquidity in the banking system.
    • Reverse Swap After Three Years:
      • On March 6, 2028, the swap will be reversed.
      • The RBI will return US dollars to the banks and absorb the equivalent amount of rupees.
    • This allows the RBI to control liquidity over a longer period without permanently altering its forex reserves.

    Significance of this move

    • Reduces Borrowing Costs: More liquidity in the system lowers short-term interest rates. Bond yields and corporate borrowing costs decline, benefiting businesses and NBFCs.
    • Stabilizes Foreign Exchange Markets: The rupee’s availability increases, reducing pressure on exchange rates. Lower hedging costs for companies with foreign liabilities.
    • Enhances RBI’s Monetary Policy Toolkit: This approach provides a temporary boost to liquidity, while ensuring a controlled reversal in the future.

    PYQ:

    [2015] Convertibility of rupee implies:

    (a) Being able to convert rupee notes into gold

    (b) Allowing the value of rupee to be fixed by market forces

    (c) Freely permitting the conversion of rupee to other currencies and vice versa

    (d) Developing an international market for currencies in India

     

  • [pib] Bay of Bengal (BOB) Inter-Governmental Organisation

    Why in the News?

    India has taken over the Chairmanship of the Bay of Bengal (BOB) Inter-Governmental Organisation from Bangladesh at the 13th Governing Council Meeting in Male, Maldives.

    What is BOBP-IGO?

    • BOBP-IGO is a regional fisheries body promoting sustainable fisheries management and improving the livelihoods of small-scale fishers in the Bay of Bengal region.
    • It was established in 2003 and is headquartered in Chennai.
    • It evolved from the Bay of Bengal Programme (BoBP), which was launched in 1979 under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
    • Members:
      • Full Members: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka.
      • Cooperating Non-Contracting Parties: Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand.
    • Objectives: Enhance marine fisheries management, build fisher capacities, promote policy cooperation, and combat Illegal, Unreported & Unregulated (IUU) fishing.

    Significance of India’s Chairmanship in BOBP-IGO

    • India will lead policies for sustainable fisheries management and marine conservation across member nations.
    • This would strengthen monitoring, surveillance, and enforcement to prevent overfishing and illegal activities.
    • It will facilitate collaboration among member nations, exchange best practices, and integrate advanced technology in fisheries.
    • It would promote scientific research, innovation, and economic growth while reinforcing India’s influence in the Indian Ocean Region.

    PYQ:

    [2022] Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation?

     

  • Tea Tribes and Jhumur Dance

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister witnessed the largest-ever Jhumur dance performance in Guwahati, to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Assam’s tea industry.

    What are Tea Tribes/Tea Garden Communities of Assam?

    • The Tea Tribes or Tea Garden Communities of Assam are descendants of laborers brought by the British in the 19th century to work in tea plantations.
    • These workers were mainly from Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • Many were brought through forced migration, and even voluntary migration occurred under exploitative conditions.
    • They were subjected to poor wages, inhumane working conditions, and restricted mobility.
    • The community is concentrated in Upper Assam districts like Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Golaghat, Sonitpur, and Sivasagar, and in the Barak Valley.
    • They currently have Other Backward Classes (OBC) Status but demand Scheduled Tribe (ST) status, as many of their sub-groups, like Munda, Santhal, and Oraon, hold ST status in their original states.
    • Despite adversity, the Tea Garden Communities preserved their cultural identity, with distinct festivals, music, and dance forms.
      • Their major festivals include Tushu Puja and Karam Puja, celebrated with the traditional Jhumur dance.

    About Jhumur Dance 

    • Jhumur (also spelled Jhumoir or Jhumair) is a folk dance of the Sadan ethnolinguistic group, mainly practised by Assam’s Tea Garden Communities.
    • It originated in Chotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand, Odisha, Bengal, and Chhattisgarh) and was brought to Assam during the British colonial era.
    • Over time, it blended with Assamese culture, incorporating Assamese musical and linguistic influences.
    • Performance and Style:
      • Women are the primary dancers, standing shoulder-to-shoulder in synchronized formations.
      • Men accompany them with traditional instruments like madal, dhol, dhak (drums), cymbals, flutes, and shehnai.
      • Attire: Women wear red and white sarees, while men wear kurta-dhoti with gamocha (traditional Assamese cloth).
    • Jhumur songs depict both celebration and hardship, narrating:
      • Love and Nature – Seasonal changes, harvest, and romance.
      • Hardships of Tea Workers – Struggles, migration, and exploitation.
      • Festivals and Community Life – Unity, faith, and social cohesion.
    • It serves as a cultural bridge, helping retain their traditions and forge a unique identity in Assam.

    PYQ:

    [2021] With reference to India, the terms ‘Halbi, Ho and Kui’ pertain to​:

    (a) Dance forms of Northwest India​

    (b) Musical instruments​

    (c) Pre-historic cave paintings​

    (d) Tribal languages​

     

  • Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement

    Why in the News?

    On February 23, 2025, farmers protesting at the Punjab and Haryana borders are observing Pagri Sambhal Diwas in honor of Ajit Singh, a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and Bhagat Singh’s paternal uncle.

    About the Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement (1907)

    • The Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement was a peasant uprising in Punjab against the oppressive British land laws that exploited farmers.
    • The movement was led by Ajit Singh, Kishan Singh (Bhagat Singh’s father), and Lala Lajpat Rai, who mobilized farmers to resist these unfair policies.
    • Farmers protested against three major British laws:
    1. Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 – Restricted farmers from selling or mortgaging their land, favoring landlords and moneylenders.
    2. Punjab Land Colonisation Act, 1906 – Allowed the British to take control of farmers’ land after their death instead of passing it to their heirs.
    3. Doab Bari Act, 1907 – Deprived farmers of ownership rights and reduced them to contract workers.
    • The British also raised taxes on agricultural land and irrigation, making it harder for farmers to sustain themselves.
    • The slogan “Pagri Sambhal Jatta“, meaning “Take care of your turban, O farmer,” was coined by Banke Dayal, a nationalist poet, and became a symbol of self-respect and protest.
    • The movement resulted in mass protests and acts of civil disobedience, forcing the British to roll back some clauses of these laws.
    • Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai were arrested in May 1907 and exiled to Burma. Due to public pressure, they were released in November 1907.
    • Fearing further persecution, Ajit Singh fled to Persia and later lived in Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he worked with other revolutionaries against British rule.
    • The movement became a landmark in India’s freedom struggle, inspiring future farmers’ agitations, the Ghadar Movement, and Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary activities.

    Who was Ajit Singh?

    On February 23, 2025, farmers protesting at the Punjab and Haryana borders are observing Pagri Sambhal Diwas in honor of Ajit Singh, a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and the paternal uncle of Bhagat Singh.

    • Ajit Singh was a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and nationalist leader who played a crucial role in India’s independence movement.
    • He was born on February 23, 1881, in Khatkar Kalan, Punjab, which is now part of Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district.
    • He was the elder brother of Kishan Singh, the father of Bhagat Singh, and played a key role in shaping Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary ideals.
    • Ajit Singh co-founded the Bharat Mata Society, an organization that aimed to unite farmers and revolutionaries against British exploitation.
    • Due to his active role in the Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement, he became a prime target of British authorities and was forced into exile for 38 years (1909-1947).
    • He lived in Persia, Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he continued his revolutionary activities and worked with Lala Hardayal and Madame Cama.
    • In March 1947, Ajit Singh returned to India, just a few months before India gained independence.
    • However, due to prolonged illness, he passed away on August 15, 1947, the very day India became independent.
    • Since 2021, February 23 has been observed as Pagri Sambhal Diwas, honoring Ajit Singh’s contributions to India’s independence and farmers’ rights.

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] What was the immediate cause for the launch of the Swadeshi movement?

    (a) The partition of Bengal done by Lord Curzon.

    (b) A sentence of 18 months rigorous imprisonment imposed on Lokmanya Tilak.

    (c) The arrest and deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh; and passing of the Punjab Colonization Bill.

    (d) Death sentence pronounced on the Chapekar brothers.

     

  • What are Zonal Councils?

    Why in the News?

    Union Home Minister chaired the 27th meeting of the Western Zonal Council in Pune.

    About Zonal Councils in India:

    Details
    Origin & Purpose
    • Proposed by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1956 to promote cooperation among states after reorganization.
    • Established under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, with the goal of resolving inter-state disputes and ensuring balanced socio-economic development.
    Composition & Structure
    • Five Zonal Councils + North-Eastern Council (NEC).
    • Chairperson: Union Home Minister.
    • Vice-Chairperson: Chief Ministers (rotating one-year term).
    • Each state is represented by its Chief Minister + 2 ministers, with NITI Aayog participation.
    • Standing Committees of Chief Secretaries review issues before full meetings.
    Zonal Councils & Member States
    • Northern: Haryana, HP, J&K, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Chandigarh.
    • Central: Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, UP, MP.
    • Eastern: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal.
    • Western: Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu.
    • Southern: AP, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry.
    • North-Eastern Council (NEC): Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim (added in 2002).
    Functions & Recent Developments
    • Resolves inter-state disputes, improves Centre-State coordination, addresses border issues, economic planning, transport, and linguistic minorities.
    • Strengthens cooperative federalism and regional development.
    • 2018: Union Home Minister became NEC Chairperson.
    • Modi government transformed Zonal Councils from advisory bodies to action-oriented platforms.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which of the following bodies is/are not mentioned in the Indian Constitution?

    1. National Development Council

    2. Planning Commission

    3. Zonal Councils

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site in Odisha

    Why in the News?

    On December 1, 2024, a team of archaeologists, students, and laborers began excavation at the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site in Jajpur, Odisha.

    On December 1, 2024, a team of archaeologists, students, and laborers began excavation at the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site in Jajpur, Odisha.

    About the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site

    • Located in Jajpur district, Odisha, Ratnagiri is part of the “Diamond Triangle” along with Udayagiri and Lalitgiri.
    • It flourished as a Vajrayana Buddhist center from the 5th to 13th century AD.
    • It was first reported in 1906, with excavations conducted from 1958-1961 by Debala Mitra.
    • It is identified as ‘Sri Ratnagiri Mahavihara Arya Bhikshu Sangha’ through inscriptions.

    Key Findings at the Site:

    • Largest Buddha Head in Odisha: 1.4 meters tall, made of Khondalite stone, featuring intricate carvings.
    • Monolithic Elephant Sculpture: Likely part of an ancient shrine complex.
    • Hundreds of Votive Stupas: Used for spiritual offerings, reflecting Vajrayana Buddhist traditions.
    • Sanskrit Inscriptions in Kutila Script: Provide insights into monastic teachings and rituals.
    • Stone Tablets and Masonry Structures: Indicate large, organized monastic settlements.
    • Lion Pedestal (Simhasana) and Buddhist Deities: Includes Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, Amitabha, Tara, Marici, Padmapani, Cunda.
    • Artefacts Used in Local Villages: Repurposed as decorations, Tulsi bases, and construction materials.

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to Buddhist history, tradition and culture in India, consider the following pairs :

    Famous shrine: Location

    1. Tabo monastery and temple complex: Spiti Valley
    2. Lhotsava Lhakhang temple, Nako: Zanskar Valley
    3. Alchi temple complex: Ladakh complex

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • First Detailed Map of Moon’s South Pole Area made from Chandrayaan Data

    Why in the News?

    Astronomers are studying the first detailed geological map of the Moon’s South Pole, created by India’s Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander, which landed on August 23, 2023.

    About the Geological Map of the Moon’s South Pole:

    • First High-Resolution Map:
      • This map is created by PRL Ahmedabad, Panjab University, and ISRO, using data from Chandrayaan-3’s Pragyan rover.
      • It offers new insights into the Moon’s formation and evolution.
    • Confirmation of a Magma Ocean:
      • Pragyan’s Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer detected molten rock beneath the surface.
      • This confirms a global magma ocean in the Moon’s early history.
    • Age and Crater Mapping:
      • Landing site estimated to be 3.7 billion years old, similar to Earth’s early evolution.
      • Schomberger Crater identified as the primary source of impact debris.
    • Importance for Lunar and Planetary Studies:
      • Preserved craters help understand the history of asteroid impacts.
      • Provides insights into the formation of the Earth-Moon system.

    Why is the Moon’s South Pole a Key Focus for Space Missions?

    • Water Ice Reserves:
      • Permanently shadowed craters hold large water ice deposits, first confirmed by Chandrayaan-1 (2009).
      • Crucial for future lunar colonies and deep-space missions.
    • Harsh but Valuable Environment:
      • Extreme cold (as low as -250°C) preserves ancient materials.
      • Continuous sunlight in some areas makes it ideal for solar power.
    • Scientific and Strategic Importance:
      • Craters contain pristine material from the early Solar System.
      • NASA, China, and Russia plan permanent research bases in the region.

  • Supreme Court’s Ruling on Remission

    Why in the News?

    In a historic judgment, the Supreme Court of India has ruled that prisoners eligible for remission under state policies must be considered for release even if they do not apply for it.

    This decision comes as part of the suo motu case “In Re: Policy Strategy for Grant of Bail”, initiated in 2021 to address prison overcrowding.

    Supreme Court’s Ruling: Key Takeaways

    • The SC overruled its earlier stance in:
      • Sangeet v. State of Haryana (2013) – Held that remission was not automatic and required a convict’s application.
      • Mohinder Singh v. State of Punjab (2013) – Ruled that courts cannot grant remission suo motu.
    • The new ruling recognizes the existence of remission policies in states and holds that:
      • Prison superintendents must initiate remission proceedings for eligible convicts.
      • Failure to consider eligible prisoners for remission violates Article 14 (Right to Equality).

    What is Remission?

    • Remission refers to the reduction of a prison sentence without altering the conviction.
    • It is different from pardon or commutation, which may involve modifying or canceling the sentence entirely.

    Legal Provisions on Remission

    • The power of remission is governed by:
      • Section 473 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023 (formerly Section 432 of CrPC) – Grants state governments the power to remit sentences at any time under specific conditions.
      • Section 475 of BNSS (formerly Section 433A of CrPC) – Prevents remission for life convicts guilty of crimes punishable by death until they serve at least 14 years.
      • Articles 72 & 161 of the Constitution – Provide remission powers to the President and Governors at the Union and State levels.
    • Earlier, remission was initiated only when a prisoner applied for it, but the new ruling removes this necessity if states already have structured remission policies.

    Impact of the Ruling on Prison Reforms

    • India’s prison population far exceeds capacity, with a 131.4% occupancy rate (2022 NCRB data).
    • Over 75% of prisoners are undertrials—this ruling may not directly help them, but it could ease congestion by enabling timely release of eligible convicts.
    • The new ruling ensures all eligible prisoners get equal consideration, preventing biases in prison administration.
    • International standards (like UN Nelson Mandela Rules) emphasize prisoner rights and rehabilitation.
    • The judgment upholds fairness and reintegration into society.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Instances of the President’s delay in commuting death sentences has come under public debate as denial of justice. Should there be a time specified for the President to accept/reject such petitions? Analyse.