GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in ‘The Hindu’.

About Lapis Lazuli

• Lapis lazuli is a deep-blue metamorphic rock prized for its vibrant colour, often used in jewellery and decorative items.
• It is composed mainly of lazurite, with other minerals like calcite and pyrite, which give it its characteristic golden specks.
• It is mainly found in Afghanistan’s Badakhshan province, though it is also present in Chile, Russia, and the US.
• It has been valued since ancient times, particularly in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, and is known for its use in making pigments, especially ultramarine.

Lapis Lazuli in Indus Valley Civilization (IVC):

• The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (3300-1900 BC) had extensive trade with Mesopotamia and Afghanistan, where lapis lazuli was imported.
• It was used for beads and ornaments found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, underscoring its value in Indus jewellery.
• It was a sacred stone, often used in beads, pendants, and amulets, symbolizing spirituality and high social status.
• It was likely associated with religious ceremonies and used to represent the gods.
• The Indus people were skilled at bead-making, often combining lapis lazuli with other stones, such as gold.
• The intricate designs, including incised or painted beads, reflect their technical expertise.

Why in the News?

This newscard is an excerpt and extension of the original article published in the Indian Express.

Rise in Mercantile Activities and Evolution of Pottery Styles:

• The Vedic period saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW), often linked with the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
• With the rise of Buddhism, Jainism, and urbanization, NBPW emerged during the Mahajanapada period.
• Glazed porcelain was introduced around 1000 AD through trade with China and Muslim traders, significantly influencing India’s pottery tradition.

How Pots are integral to understanding Culture?

• Material Culture: Pottery is a direct reflection of daily life and technological expertise. It reveals how ancient societies lived, worked, and expressed their culture through artistic and functional objects.
• Socio-Economic Indicators: The types of pottery indicate economic status. Luxury pottery like NBPW was reserved for the elite, while more common pottery suggests the everyday life of the broader society.
• Cultural and Religious Practices: Pottery had significant ritualistic and symbolic importance, used in religious ceremonies and burial rituals. Specific pots represented deities or were filled with sacred items like coconuts, bananas, and flowers.
• Technological and Artistic Development: The evolution of pottery-making, from handmade to wheel-thrown pottery, marks the increasing technological and artistic sophistication of ancient civilizations, highlighting advancements in both craftsmanship and creativity.
• Chronological Understanding: Pottery helps date ancient sites, providing key insights into the timeline of cultural and technological progress. It allows historians to map out the development of civilizations and better understand their historical context.

Why in the News?

The Union Minister of Culture and Tourism has announced the addition of six sites to India’s tentative UNESCO World Heritage List.

About the Sites

Why in the News?

Recently, PM Modi inaugurated the 25th edition of Jahaan-e-Khusrau, a Sufi music festival held at Sunder Nursery, New Delhi, in Khusrau’s honor.

Who was Amir Khusrau?

• Amir Khusrau was born in Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, to a Turkish father and an Indian mother.
• He served as a court poet to five Delhi Sultans:
  • Muiz ud din Qaiqabad of Mamluk Dynasty (1287–1290)
  • Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–1296)
  • Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)
  • Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320)
  • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325)
• He was deeply influenced by Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, whose teachings shaped his spiritual and poetic journey.
• He is fondly remembered as “The Parrot of India” (Tuti-e-Hind) for his eloquence.

Literary Contributions:

• Wrote in Persian and Hindavi, pioneering Khari Boli, the precursor to Hindi and Urdu.
• Created the first Hindi lexicon (Khalikbari), blending Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic words.

• Notable works:

• • Tughlaq Nama (historical epic)
  • Nuh Sipihr (Nine Skies)
  • In the Bazaar of Love (ghazals and poetry)
• Invented the qawwali tradition, merging Indian and Persian musical elements.
• Composed Chhap Tilak Sab Chheeni Re, Zehal-e-Miskeen, and Sakal Ban Phool Rahi Sarson.
• Credited with developing the sitar and tabla, though debated by historians.
• Most devoted disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
• Upon his master’s death in 1325, Khusrau followed within 6 months.
• His tomb lies beside Nizamuddin’s dargah in Delhi, symbolizing their eternal bond.
• Pioneered Hindavi poetry and laid the foundation for Hindi and Urdu literature.
• Inspired generations of ghazal and qawwali singers, including Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Abida Parveen.
• Festivals like Jahaan-e-Khusrau continue to honor his enduring cultural legacy.

Why in the News?

Recently, China’s Ambassador to India highlighted the historical significance of ‘Tea Horse Road’ in fostering Sino-Indian ties.

About the Tea Horse Road

• The Tea Horse Road originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
• Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded early trade between China, Tibet, and India, mentioning exchanges of sugar, textiles, and herbs.
• By the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), the trade focused on tea exports to Tibet and importing horses for China’s military.
• The network spanned over 2,000 km, crossing treacherous mountain passes at altitudes above 10,000 feet.
• The Tea Horse Road was not a single road but a network of multiple routes. Two primary routes were:

1. Yunnan Route:  Starting from Pu’er and Dali, passing through Lijiang, reaching Lhasa (Tibet), and extending into India (via Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan).
2. Sichuan Route: Connecting Chengdu (Sichuan) to Tibet and North India.

• Tea from southwestern China was transported to Tibet, then moved through the Himalayan passes to Kolkata and beyond, reaching Europe and Asia.
• The rise of modern roads and railways in the mid-20th century led to its gradual decline.

Historical Significance:

• Trade & Economy: Connected Tibet and China to India’s markets, facilitating the export of Chinese tea and Tibetan wool to Kolkata while Indian textiles and spices moved northward.
• Horses for Indian Cavalry: Tibetan horses, transported through the route, were crucial for Indian military campaigns, especially in the Mughal and British periods.
• Spread of Buddhism: The route enabled Buddhist scholars and monks to travel between Nalanda, Tibet, and China, promoting cultural and religious exchanges.
• Political & Diplomatic Relations: British India sought control over Sikkim and Tibet’s trade routes, leading to diplomatic interventions like the 1904 British expedition to Tibet.
• Impact on Himalayan Regions: Strengthened trade and cultural ties between Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tibet, influencing their shared heritage and economy.

Why in the News?

On February 24, 1739, the Battle of Karnal marked a turning point in the history of Mughal empire.

About Battle of Karnal 

• The Battle of Karnal on February 24, 1739, saw Nadir Shah’s Persian army defeat Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’ in under three hours.
• Despite having 300,000 soldiers, the Mughal army was crushed by Nadir Shah’s 55,000 well-trained troops using modern tactics and superior firearms.
• Following the victory, Delhi was sacked, 30,000 civilians massacred, and the Mughal treasury looted, including the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne.

Impact on Mughal Decline

• Economic Collapse: The Mughal treasury was emptied, crippling military and administrative strength.
• Weakening Central Power: Governors of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad declared independence.
• Military Decline: The Mughal army’s outdated tactics were exposed; future invasions (e.g., Ahmad Shah Abdali, 1748-1761) followed.
• Rise of Regional Powers: The Marathas expanded, eventually capturing Delhi (1771); the Sikhs grew in Punjab.
• British Expansion: The East India Company took advantage, leading to British rule after 1857.

Why in the News?

Prime Minister witnessed the largest-ever Jhumur dance performance in Guwahati, to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Assam’s tea industry.

What are Tea Tribes/Tea Garden Communities of Assam?

• The Tea Tribes or Tea Garden Communities of Assam are descendants of laborers brought by the British in the 19th century to work in tea plantations.
• These workers were mainly from Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Many were brought through forced migration, and even voluntary migration occurred under exploitative conditions.
• They were subjected to poor wages, inhumane working conditions, and restricted mobility.
• The community is concentrated in Upper Assam districts like Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Golaghat, Sonitpur, and Sivasagar, and in the Barak Valley.
• They currently have Other Backward Classes (OBC) Status but demand Scheduled Tribe (ST) status, as many of their sub-groups, like Munda, Santhal, and Oraon, hold ST status in their original states.
• Despite adversity, the Tea Garden Communities preserved their cultural identity, with distinct festivals, music, and dance forms.
  • Their major festivals include Tushu Puja and Karam Puja, celebrated with the traditional Jhumur dance.

About Jhumur Dance 

• Jhumur (also spelled Jhumoir or Jhumair) is a folk dance of the Sadan ethnolinguistic group, mainly practised by Assam’s Tea Garden Communities.
• It originated in Chotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand, Odisha, Bengal, and Chhattisgarh) and was brought to Assam during the British colonial era.
• Over time, it blended with Assamese culture, incorporating Assamese musical and linguistic influences.
• Performance and Style:
  • Women are the primary dancers, standing shoulder-to-shoulder in synchronized formations.
  • Men accompany them with traditional instruments like madal, dhol, dhak (drums), cymbals, flutes, and shehnai.
  • Attire: Women wear red and white sarees, while men wear kurta-dhoti with gamocha (traditional Assamese cloth).
• Jhumur songs depict both celebration and hardship, narrating:
  • Love and Nature – Seasonal changes, harvest, and romance.
  • Hardships of Tea Workers – Struggles, migration, and exploitation.
  • Festivals and Community Life – Unity, faith, and social cohesion.
• It serves as a cultural bridge, helping retain their traditions and forge a unique identity in Assam.

Why in the News?

On December 1, 2024, a team of archaeologists, students, and laborers began excavation at the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site in Jajpur, Odisha.

About the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site

• Located in Jajpur district, Odisha, Ratnagiri is part of the “Diamond Triangle” along with Udayagiri and Lalitgiri.
• It flourished as a Vajrayana Buddhist center from the 5th to 13th century AD.
• It was first reported in 1906, with excavations conducted from 1958-1961 by Debala Mitra.
• It is identified as ‘Sri Ratnagiri Mahavihara Arya Bhikshu Sangha’ through inscriptions.

Key Findings at the Site:

• Largest Buddha Head in Odisha: 1.4 meters tall, made of Khondalite stone, featuring intricate carvings.
• Monolithic Elephant Sculpture: Likely part of an ancient shrine complex.
• Hundreds of Votive Stupas: Used for spiritual offerings, reflecting Vajrayana Buddhist traditions.
• Sanskrit Inscriptions in Kutila Script: Provide insights into monastic teachings and rituals.
• Stone Tablets and Masonry Structures: Indicate large, organized monastic settlements.
• Lion Pedestal (Simhasana) and Buddhist Deities: Includes Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, Amitabha, Tara, Marici, Padmapani, Cunda.
• Artefacts Used in Local Villages: Repurposed as decorations, Tulsi bases, and construction materials.

Why in the News?

The Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) government in Assam has officially included ‘Bathouism’ as an option in the religion column of key application forms, including admission forms, birth and death certificates.

What is Bathouism?

• Bathouism is the traditional faith of the Bodo people, primarily practiced in Assam and the foothills of Bhutan.
• It is a nature-centric religion that worships Bathoubwrai, the supreme deity believed to govern the universe.
• The central symbol of Bathouism is the Sijou plant (Euphorbia antiquorum), representing Bathoubwrai and planted in sacred enclosures (Bathou Thansali).
• Bathou Puja is performed to seek divine blessings for prosperity, health, and well-being.
• The Assam government has recently recognized Bathouism as a distinct faith, allowing its inclusion in official documents.

Philosophy of Bathouism

• Bathouism is based on five fundamental elements, known as Ba (five) Thou (deep thought), representing natural forces:

1. Bar (Air) – Symbolizes breath, movement, and life force.
2. San (Sun) – Represents light, energy, and warmth.
3. Ha (Earth) – Stands for stability, fertility, and sustenance.
4. Or (Fire) – Denotes transformation and purification.
5. Okhrang (Sky) – Represents infinite wisdom and cosmic balance.

• Bathoubwrai (Sibwrai) is considered almighty, omniscient, and eternal, beyond time and space. He is indestructible—fire cannot burn him, water cannot moisten him, air cannot dry him, and weapons cannot pierce him.
• Bathouism promotes:

1. Truthfulness, honesty, and righteousness.
2. Respect for elders, ancestors, and nature.
3. Peaceful coexistence and non-violence.
4. Gratitude through rituals and pujas.

• Bathou rituals involve five bamboo sticks symbolizing the five elements, with offerings of rice beer, milk, flowers, and incense.
• Ancestral veneration and community harmony are integral aspects of the faith.

Why in the News?

Tamil Nadu CM recently proclaimed that the Iron Age began on Tamil soil over 5,300 years ago (4th millennium BCE), based on findings from Mayiladumparai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, and Kilnamandi.

Iron Age in India

• The Iron Age in India was initially thought to have begun around 700-600 BCE.
• Radiocarbon dating pushed the timeline back to 1800 BCE, with evidence of iron smelting found in Central Ganga Plain and Eastern Vindhyas.
• Recent discoveries in Tamil Nadu suggest that iron metallurgy was established in South India as early as 3300 BCE.

Notable Iron Age Sites in India:

1. Central and Northern India

• Raja Nala-ka-tila (UP): Iron tools and slag found in pre-NBP (Northern Black Polished) deposits (1400–800 BCE).
• Malhar (Chandauli, UP): Furnaces and iron slag indicate a major iron metallurgy center (1200 BCE).
• Dadupur (UP): Large-scale iron smelting evidence dating back to 1000 BCE.
• Hastinapur (UP): Iron tools associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture (1000 BCE).
• Takshashila (Punjab, Pakistan): Iron tools found in Gandhara settlements (800 BCE).

2. Western and Central India

• Ahar (Rajasthan): Chalcolithic culture (2500–1700 BCE) showed early evidence of iron artifacts.
• Naikund (Vidarbha, Maharashtra): Discovery of an iron smelting furnace (1000 BCE).
• Mahurjhari (Nagpur, Maharashtra): Horse ornaments made of copper with iron knobs (800 BCE).

3. South India

• Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu): Large-scale iron smelting and slag deposits (1200 BCE).
• Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu): Iron tools and burial urns linked to Megalithic culture (1000 BCE).
• Mayiladumparai (Tamil Nadu): Recent findings date iron usage to 3300 BCE, making it one of the oldest sites of iron metallurgy in India.
• Sivagalai (Tamil Nadu): Iron artifacts and slag deposits, indicating early smelting practices (1100 BCE).

Iron Age in Tamil Nadu: New Discoveries

• Earlier studies in Mayiladumparai Excavation (2022) suggested that the Iron Age began 4,200 years ago (3rd millennium BCE).
• This timeline coincides with the Copper/Bronze Age in North India, indicating a technological divergence between the regions.
• The latest State Archaeology Department’s report, “Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu”, confirms that Iron smelting began as early as 3,345 BCE – 2,953 BCE.
• Limited availability of copper ores in South India might have led to the early adoption of iron technology.
• Excavations in Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai indicate that the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu predates much of North India.