GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Central Idea

• In New Delhi’s Pragati Maidan, a grand 27-foot Nataraja statue, the world’s tallest depiction of Lord Shiva in his dancing form, awaits the arrival of G20 leaders.
• Craftsmen behind the statue trace their lineage 34 generations back to the Cholas.

The Nataraja Masterpiece

• Crafted from an eight-metal alloy (ashtadhatu) by skilled artisans from Swamimalai, Tamil Nadu.
• Weighing approximately 18 tonnes, it was transported across the country on a 36-wheel trailer.

• The statue’s design draws inspiration from three revered Nataraja idols:

• 1. Thillai Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram.
  2. Uma Maheswarar Temple in Konerirajapuram.
  3. Brihadeeswara (Big) Temple in Thanjavur (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).

The Cholas and Nataraja

• All three temples that inspired the Bharat Mandapam Nataraja statue were originally constructed by the Cholas.
• During the 9th-11th centuries AD, the Cholas ruled much of peninsular India and were known for their patronage of art and culture.
• Chola art and architecture flourished during their territorial expansion.

Significance: Shiva as the Lord of Dance

• Lord Shiva’s portrayal as Nataraja evolved from the Vedic deity Rudra.
• Shiva is a complex deity, embodying both destructive and protective aspects.
• Nataraja, the Lord of Dance, symbolizes Shiva’s role as both the destroyer and protector.
• He is known to have invented numerous dances, ranging from calm to fierce and orgiastic.

Iconography of Nataraja

• Nataraja is often depicted within a flaming aureole or halo, representing the circle of the world.
• He has long dreadlocks, signifying the energy of his dance, and four arms.
• In his upper right hand, he holds a damru (hand drum), in the upper left, agni (fire).
• A dwarf-like figure beneath his foot symbolizes illusion.
• Nataraja’s front right hand makes the ‘abhayamudra’ (gesture to allay fear), and he points to his raised feet with his front left hand.
• Despite its complex symbolism, Nataraja typically wears a serene smile, signifying the duality of life and death.

The Lost Wax Method

• The 27-foot Bharat Mandapam Nataraja statue was created using the traditional ‘lost-wax’ casting method, indigenous to the Chola era.
• This method dates back at least 6,000 years.
• It involves creating a wax model, covering it with a special soil paste, heating it to remove the wax, leaving behind a hollow mould, which is then filled with molten metal.
• This technique was mastered by the Cholas and is considered a pinnacle of metallurgical artistry.

Central Idea

• Seethakali folk dance of Kerala has been fading from the public domain, and around three decades ago, it was on the verge of extinction.

Seethakali Folk Art

• Seethakali is a traditional folk dance that originates from the rich cultural heritage of Kerala.
• It is performed primarily by Dalit artists from the Veda and Pulaya communities.

Key Features

• Seethakali is a unique form of folk art that combines elements of storytelling dance, drama, and song.
• The central narrative revolves around the epic Ramayana, particularly focusing on the characters of Sita, Ram, and Laxman.
• Artists adorn themselves with eye-catching makeup, traditional ornaments, and elaborate costumes, enhancing the visual appeal of the performance.

Central Idea

• India, with its rich heritage, has borne various names throughout its history, each encapsulating a distinct facet of its identity.
• The process of naming this diverse land has sparked debates, controversies, and reflections on its collective consciousness.

Historical Evolution of Names

1. Meluha (Third Millennium BCE):

• The ancient Mesopotamian texts referenced ‘Meluha’ to denote the Indus Valley Civilization, highlighting India’s antiquity and interactions with ancient civilizations.
• ‘Meluha’ is believed to have been used to describe the Indus Valley Civilization in texts from the third millennium BCE.

2. Bharata (Ancient Times to Modern Era):

• Rooted in Puranic literature and the Mahabharata, ‘Bharata’ resonates with religious and socio-cultural connotations.
• Associated with a supraregional and subcontinental territory where Brahmanical society prevailed.
• Evident during the freedom struggle through slogans like ‘Bharat Mata ki Jai’.
• ‘Bharata’ was derived from the mythological founders of the race, and its popularity during modern times is also due to its usage during the freedom movement.

3. Aryavarta, Jambudvipa, Nabhivarsa (Ancient Vedic Period):

• ‘Aryavarta’ referred to the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya ranges, where the Indo-Aryans resided.
• ‘Jambudvipa’ and ‘Nabhivarsa’ were also used in Vedic texts and Jain literature to signify the subcontinent, emphasizing different cultural contexts.

4. Hindustan (7th Century BCE):

• Originated during Persian occupation, ‘Hindustan’ referred to the lower Indus basin.
• ‘Hind’ in Persian meant ‘Sindhu’ (Indus river), leading to its application to the region beyond Indus.
• The Persian suffix ‘stan’ (land) was added to form ‘Hindustan’.

5. India (Ancient to Colonial Era):

• The Greeks transliterated ‘Hind’ as ‘Indus’, establishing ‘India’ as a name for the region.
• Colonial usage solidified ‘India’ as a political and geographical term, signifying the subcontinent under British rule.
• ‘India’ was adopted due to its Graeco-Roman associations, history of use in Europe, and bureaucratic usage such as the Survey of India.

Constitutional Deliberations (1947-1949)

• The Constituent Assembly engaged in heated debates over the nation’s official name.
• Jawaharlal Nehru noted the significance of ‘Hindustan’, ‘Bharat’, and ‘India’.
• Nehru’s book “The Discovery of India” captured the coexistence of these names in the collective consciousness.
• The Constitution retained ‘India’ and ‘Bharat’, reflecting diverse visions of the nation.
• The first Article of the Constitution reads, “India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of states.”

Fact for Prelims In the ancient Indian text, Vishnu Purana, the name ‘Bharat’ finds mention as the landmass that lies north of the ocean and south of snow mountains. It states: Uttaraṃ yatsamudrasya himādreścaiva dakṣiṇam varṣaṃ tadbhārataṃ nāma bhāratī yatra santatiḥ This shloka means: “The country (Varsam) that lies north of the ocean and south of the snowy mountains is called Bharatam; there live the descendants of Bharata.

 

Contemporary Reflections

1. Identity and Pride (2023):

• Recent developments suggest a potential change in India’s official name to ‘Republic of Bharat’.
• Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma hinted at the change, signaling a reset in India’s central identification.
• Political leaders and citizens expressed opinions on the potential change, invoking sentiments of national pride.

2. Symbolism and Debate:

• The change of name is interpreted as a move to reflect India’s ancient identity and cultural heritage.
• Congress leader Jairam Ramesh discussed the implications of the change on national identity and opposition alliances.
• Shashi Tharoor, a former Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, highlighted the significance of both ‘India’ and ‘Bharat’.

3. Constitutional and Historical Context:

• Article 1 of the Indian Constitution declares ‘India, that is Bharat’ as a ‘Union of States’.
• Some leaders emphasized the importance of preserving the brand value associated with the name ‘India’.
• The historical roots of ‘Bharat’ as described in ancient texts and its constitutional adoption were highlighted.

4. ‘Bharat’ and ‘India’ Coexistence:

• Both ‘Bharat’ and ‘India’ have been used interchangeably, signifying the country’s diverse identity.
• The official names ‘Bharat Ganarajya’ (in Hindi) and ‘Republic of India’ (in English) are present on Indian passports.
• The names reflect the continuity of historical legacy and modern nation-building.

Conclusion

• The journey of India’s names mirrors its complex identity, blending history, culture, and politics.
• As India continues to evolve, its names continue to encapsulate its essence, fostering a deep connection with its past and an ever-evolving future.
• Each name is a testament to India’s rich tapestry of history, culture, and collective consciousness.

Central Idea

• The culmination of Onam festivities witnessed the Pulikkali celebration, a traditional folk art form from Kerala, where humans dressed as tigers and leopards paraded through the streets.

About Pulikkali

• Pulikkali, also known as Tiger Dance, is a unique folk art of Kerala.
• Celebrated on the fourth day of Onam, artists adorn themselves as tigers with distinctive yellow, red, and black stripes, accompanied by the rhythmic beats of traditional percussion instruments like thakil, udukku, and chenda.
• The central theme revolves around tiger hunting, with individuals playing the roles of both the tiger and the hunter.
• It was introduced by Maharaja Rama Varma Sakthan Thampuran, the former ruler of Cochin, Pulikkali reflects a rich cultural heritage.

Onam Festival: Key Highlights

• Onam, the most significant celebration in Kerala, holds great cultural importance.
• Occurring at the onset of Chingam, the first month of the Malayalam Calendar, it’s a harvest festival celebrating prosperity.
• The Onam Carnival extends for four to ten days, with Atham (first day) and Thiruonam (tenth day) as the most pivotal.
• A popular belief holds that Onam welcomes King Mahabali’s spirit, who is believed to visit Kerala during this period.
• The festival includes Vallamkali, a thrilling snake boat race ‘Vallamkali’ conducted on the Pampa River.
• Onam showcases Kaikotti kali and Thumbi Thullal, graceful dances performed by women, adding elegance to the celebrations.

Central Idea

• The Supreme Court clarified that children born from void or voidable marriages can inherit the parent’s share in a joint Hindu family property governed by Mitakshara law.
• However, the inheritance rights are limited to the parent’s share and do not extend to other family members’ properties.

Mitakshara School of Law

History	Originated in ancient India; attributed to Vijnaneshvara, a 12th-century scholar
Focus	Interpretation of Yajnavalkya Smriti in matters of family, property, and inheritance law
Ancestral Property	Emphasis on joint family property and ancestral property rights
Inheritance	Defines rules for succession and inheritance within Hindu families
Variations	Different regional interpretations, including the “Dayabhaga” School
Regional Influence	Widespread influence on Hindu legal practices, especially in property law
Development	Evolved over time and influenced by legal reforms and societal changes
Modern Context	Coexists with contemporary legal frameworks and personal laws
Significance	Played a significant role in shaping Hindu family and property law

Nature of Marriages and Law

• A voidable marriage is made invalid by the husband or wife through a decree.
• A void marriage is invalid from the beginning.
• Mitakshara Law of Succession applies to Hindu Undivided Families across India, except West Bengal and Assam.

Ruling Details

• The Supreme Court, headed by Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud, clarified that the child from a void or voidable marriage cannot claim rights to other family members’ properties.
• The child’s inheritance rights pertain only to the parent’s share in the ancestral property.
• A “notional partition” is conducted to ascertain the parent’s share immediately before their death.

Inheritance Calculation

• The law assumes a partition of the ancestral property between the deceased parent and other family members before the parent’s death.
• The child’s inheritance is based on the share the parent would have received through this notional partition.

Legal Basis

• Section 16 of the Hindu Marriage Act grants legitimacy to children born from void or voidable marriages.
• The court held that these children have the right to their parents’ property.
• The intent of granting legitimacy to such children in the Hindu Marriage Act is reflected in the Hindu Succession Act.

Impact of Amendment

• The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, allows a deceased person’s share in a joint Hindu family property to devolve to heirs by testamentary or intestate succession.
• Before the amendment, devolution occurred only through survivorship.
• Equal rights of succession are now granted to women as well as men.

Background and Precedents

• The case was centered on Section 16(3) of the Hindu Marriage Act.
• In 2011, a Division Bench of the Supreme Court championed the rights of children born from illegitimate marriages to inherit their parents’ properties.
• The Division Bench emphasized that these children deserve the same rights as those born from valid marriages.

Conclusion

• The concept of legitimacy evolves with changing social norms.
• The court observed that what was considered illegitimate in the past may be legitimate today.
• Children born from void or voidable marriages should not be denied inheritance rights based on evolving social consensus.

Central Idea

• Madras Day celebrated on August 22, commemorates the foundation day of the city of Madras, now known as Chennai.

The Birth of Madras

• 1639: The East India Company (EIC) purchased the town of Madrasapatnam on August 22, 1639, laying the foundation for the modern-day city of Chennai.
• British Presence: The EIC established trading posts and fortified settlements along the eastern and western coasts, leading to the emergence of Madras as a crucial hub.

Transition from Madras to Chennai

• British Rule: The region remained under British rule until India gained independence in 1947, with both the state and city referred to as Madras.
• 1969: The state was officially renamed Tamil Nadu, and in 1996, Madras transformed into Chennai as a nod to its historical roots.

Origins and Significance of Madrasapatnam

• Origins of the Name: The origin of the name “Madras” remains debated, with theories suggesting connections to local fishermen, churches, and the term “pattinam” (town on the coast).
• Pre-British History: Madrasapatnam had a history shaped by various rulers, including the Pallavas and Cholas, before the British arrival.

Purchase and Founding of Madrasapatnam

• Damarla Venkatapathy Nayak: Under his influence, the English were granted a piece of land between the Cooum River and the Egmore River in 1639, where Fort St. George was established.
• Chennapatanam: The city around Fort St. George was named Chennapatanam, honoring Chennappa Nayak, which later inspired the name “Chennai.”

Urban Growth and Development

• Growth of the City: Over the centuries, Chennai evolved from Fort St. George and the Black and White towns into a significant urban center.
• Institutionalization: Under Governor Elihi Yale, a mayor and Corporation were established, and areas like Egmore and Tondiarpet were acquired.

Evolution to Tamil Nadu and Chennai

• Post-Independence Era: After British rule ended, Madras province became Madras State.
• Demand for Change: Various demands to rename the state as Tamil Nadu gained traction, with K P Sankaralinganar’s protest in 1956 being a pivotal moment.
• Name Change: The renaming to Tamil Nadu was approved by Parliament in 1968 and came into effect in 1969.
• Chennai’s Transition: Chennai’s renaming from Madras in 1996 was part of a broader trend to shed colonial influences, though British influence on these names’ evolution cannot be denied.

Continuing Identity

• The transformation of Madras to Chennai is not just a change in nomenclature, but a reflection of the dynamic interplay between historical heritage, regional identity, and post-colonial aspirations.
• The city’s evolution stands as a testament to the diverse threads that weave India’s urban tapestry.

Central Idea

The recent discovery of two sculptures in the Basrur region near Kundapura, Udupi (Karnataka), has brought to light the existence of the ancient Mylara cult in the coastal area.

What is the news?

• A remarkable sculpture, discovered in a well at Basrur, showcases a royal hero seated on a horse, wielding a sword and a bowl in his right and left hands, respectively.
• Notably, this sculpture lacks the depiction of Mylaladevi on the horse’s back.

About Mylara Cult

• Mylara, a revered folk deity, is believed to be a divine incarnation of Lord Shiva.
• Known by various names such as Mailara, Khandoba, Khanderao, and Khandnatha, this deity holds a diverse range of titles that highlight its multifaceted nature.
• Its origins can be traced back to the 12th century Shaivite tradition, associated with the revered Lingayat saint and philosopher Siddharama, aka. Siddharameshwara or Siddhalinga.
• The influence of the Mylara cult spans across the southern regions of India, encompassing Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Historical Significance

• Basrur was a thriving trading hub during the Medieval period, bustling with trading guilds like Uhayadesi and Nanadesi.
• These guilds actively participated in trade, making Basrur a pivotal center for various cults and cultural exchange.
• The Mylara cult, known for its prominence in the Deccan region, flourished in Basrur as well.

Central Idea

• Recent archaeological excavations in Tirunaya near Nagaparamba (Kerala) have brought to light a collection of hemispherical laterite stones known as hat stones or Thoppikkallu in Malayalam.

Nagaparamba Megalithic Treasure

• Thoppikkallu: Hat stones, referred to as Thoppikkallu in Malayalam, served as lids for burial urns during the megalithic era, offering a unique glimpse into burial practices.
• Cultural Insights: The discoveries may provide valuable insights into the life and culture of the ancient inhabitants of the area, dating back more than 2,000 years.

Unraveling the Mystery of Megaliths

• Megalithic Structures: Megaliths were constructed as either burial sites or commemorative memorials, creating a distinctive landscape of archaeological significance.
• Burial Remains: Examples of burial megaliths include dolmenoid cists, cairn circles, and capstones, each with its unique design and purpose.
• Non-Sepulchral Megaliths: Non-burial megaliths, such as menhirs, hold a different purpose and significance.
• Historical Context: The majority of Indian megaliths are attributed to the Iron Age, spanning from 1500 BC to 500 BC.
• Regional Concentration: These intriguing structures are concentrated in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.