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GS Paper: GS3-13.Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc:

  • India crosses 300 GW of non-fossil power capacity

    Why in the News

    India’s non-fossil fuel capacity has crossed 300 GW, achieving about 60% of the 500 GW target for 2030. The key challenge is converting installed capacity into actual electricity generation.

    What is the 500 GW Target?

    1. Panchamrit pledge: India committed at COP26, Glasgow (2021) to achieve 500 GW of non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030.
    2. Coverage: Includes solar, wind, hydro and nuclear capacity.
    3. Not total capacity: It excludes fossil-fuel capacity such as coal and gas.

    Why Capacity ≠ Generation?

    1. Capacity factors: Solar and wind are intermittent, so installed capacity does not translate proportionately into electricity generated.
    2. Storage gap: Batteries and pumped-storage hydropower are needed to provide reliable renewable power.
    3. Grid constraints: Transmission and grid-balancing infrastructure must expand alongside renewable capacity.
    4. Peak demand mismatch: Renewable generation may not coincide with periods of highest electricity demand.

    Value Addition

    • Panchamrit: 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030; 50% energy requirements from renewables; reduce projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes; reduce emissions intensity by 45%; achieve net zero by 2070.
    • Key challenge: Shift from capacity addition → reliable, dispatchable clean power.

    “[2022, GS3, 15 marks] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.”

    [2026] Consider the following statements with reference to India’s response to climate change:
    I. India’s Long-Term Low Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS) is a crucial tool for achieving net-zero emissions by 2070
    II. India’s 4th Biennial Update Report (BUR-4) submitted in December, 2024 recorded around 8% decrease in Greenhouse gas emissions in 2020 over 2019.
    III. Climate-resilient development necessarily depends on quick and short-term achievement of emission reduction targets.
    Which of the following relationships among the above statements is/are correct?
    1. Statement I is empirically supported by statement II.
    2. Statement III contradicts the approach implicit in statement I.
    3. Statement I and statement III together establish the premise of long-term sustainability.
    Select the answer using the code given below:

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 1 and 2

    [C] 2 and 3

    [D] 3 only

  • Oil companies reject contamination claims against E20 petrol

    Why in the News

    Oil marketing companies rejected contamination allegations against E20 petrol after pan India testing, highlighting concerns over fuel quality, engine compatibility and consumer confidence.

    What is the Ethanol Blending Programme?

    • Objective: Reduce crude oil import dependence, improve energy security and support farmers.
    • E20: Petrol containing 20% ethanol.
    • India achieved the E20 blending target ahead of its earlier 2030 deadline.
    • Key Feedstocks: Sugarcane and molasses. Maize, and Surplus rice and other approved agricultural feedstocks

    Technical Trade-offs

    • Lower energy density: May reduce fuel economy.
    • Engine compatibility: Older vehicles may require compatible components.
    • Higher octane: Ethanol has a high octane rating and can improve combustion characteristics.

    “[2020] According to India’s National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels?
    1. Cassava
    2. Damaged wheat grains
    3. Groundnut seeds
    4. Horse gram
    5. Rotten potatoes
    6. Sugar beet
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    (a) 1, 2, 5 and 6 only
    (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only
    (c) 2, 3, 4 and 5 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

  • Cabinet Approves GOBARdhan as a National Unified Scheme for Compressed Biogas

    Why in the News

    The Union Cabinet has approved GOBARdhan as a National Unified Scheme for Compressed Biogas (CBG) to accelerate domestic biogas production, promote clean energy, and strengthen the circular economy.

    What is the GOBARdhan Scheme?

    • Full form: Galvanizing Organic Bio Agro Resources Dhan (GOBARdhan).
    • Launched: 2018 under the Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen).
    • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
    • Objective: Promote production of Compressed Biogas (CBG) from organic waste while improving waste management, clean energy access, and farmers’ income.

    Key Features of the National Unified Scheme

    • Total Outlay: ₹23,731 crore.
    • Duration: FY 2027 to FY 2036 (10 years).
    • CBG Blending Obligation (CBGO):
      • 3% in the first year.
      • 4% in the second year.
      • 5% from the third year onwards in City Gas Distribution (CGD) networks.
    • Price Support: Administered price of about ₹2,110 per MMBTU for a minimum of 10 years.
    • Capital Assistance: Up to ₹2 crore per tonne per day of CBG production capacity for new projects.
    • Target: Achieve nearly a tenfold increase in domestic CBG production.

    What is Compressed Biogas (CBG)?

    • Definition: Purified biogas with more than 90% methane content.
    • Feedstock: Produced from agricultural residue, cattle dung, municipal solid waste, sewage, and other biodegradable waste.
    • Uses: Can replace Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in transport, industry, and cooking.

    [2016] Which of the following are the key features of ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)?
    1. River basin is the unit of planning and management.
    2. It spearheads the river conservation efforts at the national level.
    3. One of the Chief Ministers of the States through which the Ganga flows becomes the Chairman of NGRBA on rotation basis.
    Select the correct answer using the code given Below.

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 2 and 3 only

    [C] 1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • India may charge gas users to fund planned $42 billion fuel reserves, sources say

    Why in the News

    India proposed to fund an enlarged strategic fuel reserve through a small charge on cooking gas and natural gas. The move exposes the trade off between building energy insurance and raising the household fuel bill.

    What is a Strategic Petroleum Reserve?

    1. Emergency stockpile: A strategic petroleum reserve is a government held store of fuel to cushion supply shocks and price spikes.
    2. Current cover: India’s existing reserves hold crude oil at underground sites managed by the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited (ISPRL).
    3. New feature: For the first time the buffer would extend beyond crude to cover LNG and LPG.

    How would the new reserve be funded?

    1. LPG charge: A levy of about Rs 1.29 per kg on cooking gas is proposed.
    2. Gas charge: A levy of about Rs 1.43 per standard cubic metre on natural gas is proposed.
    3. Annual pool: The charges would raise close to $1.5 billion a year.
    4. Cover target: The reserve would hold roughly two months of crude and LNG and six weeks of LPG.

    Why does energy security drive this now?

    1. Import dependence: India imports about 90% of its crude and is the third largest oil importer.
    2. Chokepoint risk: Disruption at the Strait of Hormuz has already forced diversification of LNG sources.
    3. Price volatility: A larger buffer reduces exposure to sudden price surges.

    Conclusion

    The proposal marks a shift from a crude only buffer to a broader fuel insurance system, paid for by consumers. The next milestone is the formal notification of the levy and the reserve’s expansion plan.

    Back2Basics

    Cooking gas and Natural gas

    Cooking gas (Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG) and natural gas (Piped Natural Gas or PNG) differ primarily in chemical composition, how they are stored, and how they are delivered to homes.

    Key Differences in Composition and Properties

    1. Chemical Makeup: Cooking gas (LPG) is made of propane and butane (C₃H₈ and C₄H₁₀), while natural gas is primarily methane (CH₄).
    2. Energy Output: LPG has a higher calorific value, meaning it produces more heat per unit and cooks food faster than natural gas.
    3. Behavior in Leaks: LPG is heavier than air and settles near the floor during a leak, whereas natural gas is lighter than air and rises/disperses quickly upward.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025]“Energy security constitutes the dominant kingpin of India’s foreign policy, and is linked with India’s overarching influence in Middle Eastern countries.” How would you integrate energy security with India’s foreign policy trajectories in the coming years?

    Linkage: The PYQ examines the role of energy security in shaping India’s foreign policy and strategic interests. The article highlights India’s plan to expand strategic fuel reserves to reduce import risks and strengthen long-term energy security.

  • Cabinet approves Pradhan Mantri Surya Sarovar Yojana for floating solar power

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet approved the Pradhan Mantri Surya Sarovar Yojana, a ₹5,070 crore scheme to promote floating solar power projects on reservoirs and other water bodies, targeting 5,000 MW capacity by 2030-31.

    Key Features

    • Financial Assistance: Up to ₹1 crore per MW for floating solar projects.
    • Battery Storage: Mandatory 2-hour Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) with projects.
    • Implementing Agency: Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI).
    • Target: 5,000 MW floating solar capacity by 2030-31.

    Why is the Scheme Needed?

    • India has installed only 0.7 GW of floating solar against an estimated 102 GW potential.
    • Addresses land scarcity for new solar parks, especially in states like Rajasthan and Gujarat.
    • Battery storage improves grid stability and reduces renewable energy curtailment.

    Significance

    • Expands renewable energy without acquiring additional land.
    • Reduces water evaporation from reservoirs.
    • Improves solar panel efficiency due to the cooling effect of water.
    • Supports India’s 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity target by 2030 and Net Zero by 2070.

    Challenges

    • Higher installation and maintenance costs than ground-mounted solar plants.
    • Complex clearances due to multiple authorities managing water bodies.
    • Possible ecological impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
    • Battery storage increases project costs.

    Floating Solar Power

    • Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels installed on lakes, reservoirs, dams and other water bodies.
    • Requires floating platforms, anchoring systems and underwater cables.
    • Suitable where land availability is limited.

    Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI)

    • Established in 2011.
    • Functions under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
    • Nodal agency for implementing renewable energy schemes and conducting renewable energy auctions.

    PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana vs Surya Sarovar Yojana

    • PM Surya Ghar: Rooftop solar for households.
    • Surya Sarovar Yojana: Floating solar projects on reservoirs and water bodies.
    • Related Initiatives: National Green Hydrogen Mission, National Solar Mission, PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana, and PM-KUSUM Scheme

    [2022, GS3, 15.0 marks] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewable energy help achieve the above objective? Explain.

    [2019] With reference to solar power production in India, consider the following statements :
    1. India is the third largest in the world in the manufacture of silicon wafers used in photovoltaic units.
    2. The solar power tariffs are determined by the Solar Energy Corporation of India.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant reactor costs soar 55%

    Why in the News?

    The cost of Units 3 to 6 of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KKNPP) has increased by 55%, from ₹89,470 crore to ₹1,38,330 crore, mainly due to disruptions caused by the Russia-Ukraine war. The development comes as India opens its civil nuclear sector to private participation.

    Why has the Cost Increased?

    • War-related disruptions: Higher prices of imported reactor components, logistics and raw materials.
    • Construction delays: Longer project timelines increased financing and interest costs.
    • Capital-intensive nature: Capital cost accounts for nearly 60% of the Levelised Cost of Electricity (LCOE) in nuclear power.
    • Sector-wide trend: Similar cost escalation has been observed at the Rajasthan Atomic Power Project.

    Significance

    • Supports India’s goal of expanding clean, low-carbon electricity.
    • Highlights challenges in attracting private investment into nuclear energy.
    • Cost escalation may increase electricity tariffs and affect project viability.
    • Emphasises the need for resilient nuclear supply chains.

    Challenges

    • High upfront capital investment.
    • Long construction and payback periods.
    • Dependence on imported reactor technology and components.
    • Land acquisition and local opposition.
    • Geopolitical risks affecting global supply chains.

    Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KKNPP)

    • Located in Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu.
    • Built with technical collaboration between India and Russia.
    • Uses VVER (Water-Water Energetic Reactor), a type of Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR).
    • Operated by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).

    Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

    • Established in 1954.
    • Functions directly under the Prime Minister’s Office.
    • Responsible for nuclear energy policy, research and development.

    Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)

    • Established in 1983.
    • India’s independent nuclear safety regulator.
    • Regulates radiation safety, nuclear installations and licensing.
    • Does not determine nuclear tariffs or policy.

    India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

    1. Stage I: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium.
    2. Stage II: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) using plutonium.
    3. Stage III: Thorium-based reactors using U-233, leveraging India’s large thorium reserves.

    India’s Major Nuclear Power Plants

    • Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu), Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kakrapar (Gujarat), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kaiga (Karnataka), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Gorakhpur (Haryana, under construction)

    [2018, GS3, 15.0 marks] With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy.
    [2020] In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA safeguards” while others are not ?

    a) Some use uranium and others use thorium
    b) Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies
    c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises
    d) Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned

  • PM Modi inaugurates semiconductor project and other projects in Andhra Pradesh

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister inaugurated and laid foundation stones for ₹18,000 crore worth of projects in Andhra Pradesh, including a semiconductor project at Tarluvada (Visakhapatnam), to strengthen India’s semiconductor ecosystem and reduce import dependence.

    Key Components

    • Semiconductor Project (Tarluvada): Boost domestic chip manufacturing and employment.
    • National Highways: Four-lane NH-365BG sections and Tadipatri Bypass (NH-67).
    • Power Transmission: Integrate renewable energy from Kurnool and Ananthapuram into the National Grid.
    • Alluri Sitarama Raju International Airport: Improve connectivity for North Andhra, South Odisha and Chhattisgarh.

    Significance

    • Reduces dependence on imported semiconductors.
    • Diversifies India’s semiconductor ecosystem beyond Gujarat.
    • Supports Make in India, Digital India and electronics manufacturing.
    • Strengthens supply chain resilience and national technological security.
    • Renewable energy integration ensures reliable power for semiconductor fabrication.

    Challenges

    • Very high capital investment.
    • Limited domestic ecosystem for semiconductor equipment, chemicals and skilled manpower.
    • Long gestation period before commercial production.
    • Requirement of uninterrupted power and ultra-pure water.

    Semiconductor Value Chain

    • Chip Design
    • Wafer Fabrication (Fab)
    • Assembly, Packaging and Testing (OSAT/ATMP)
    • Integration into electronic products

    India’s Semiconductor Ecosystem

    • Dholera (Gujarat): India’s first commercial semiconductor fab.
    • Morigaon (Assam): Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test (TSAT) facility.
    • Sanand (Gujarat): OSAT facility by CG Power-Renesas partnership.
    • Tarluvada (Andhra Pradesh): Expands the semiconductor ecosystem to southern India.
      • Importance of Semiconductors: Smartphones, Artificial Intelligence, Electric Vehicles, Defence systems, Telecommunications (5G/6G), Medical devices, and Consumer electronics

    India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

    • Launched in 2021 under MeitY.
    • Financial outlay of ₹76,000 crore.
    • Supports: Semiconductor Fabs, Display Fabs, Compound Semiconductor & Silicon Photonics, Sensors, and OSAT/ATMP facilities
    • Objective: Develop an end-to-end semiconductor manufacturing ecosystem in India.

    Note:

    • OSAT: Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test; packages and tests semiconductor chips.
    • ATMP: Assembly, Testing, Marking and Packaging of semiconductor devices.
    • Fab: Manufacturing facility where silicon wafers are processed into integrated circuits.

    [2025, GS3, 15.0 marks] India aims to become a semiconductor manufacturing hub. What are the challenges faced by the semiconductor industry in India? Mention the salient features of the India Semiconductor Mission.”

    [2026] Which one of the following pairs of semiconductor plants in India and their locations is not correctly matched?

    [A] CG Power and Industrial Solutions Pvt. Ltd. in partnership with Renesas Electronics and STARS Microelectronics: Gujarat

    [B] Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test Pvt. Ltd: Assam

    [C] HCL-Foxconn Joint Venture India Chip Ltd: Madhya Pradesh

    [D] SicSem Pvt. Ltd: Odisha

  • Cabinet approves Samudra Manthan offshore exploration scheme

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet approved the Samudra Manthan Scheme (31 July 2026), a ₹84,084 crore National Offshore Exploration Scheme to boost domestic oil and gas production and reduce India’s growing import dependence.

    Key Components

    • Deepwater Drilling (₹43,200 crore): Support for 60 exploratory wells with funding up to 50% of drilling cost or ₹675 crore per well.
    • Offshore Data Acquisition (₹28,534 crore): Seismic surveys and geological data interpretation.
    • Common Infrastructure (₹10,000 crore): Shared offshore production facilities and pipelines.
    • Manufacturing & Service Zones (₹2,000 crore): Promote indigenous oil and gas equipment manufacturing.

    Objectives

    • Reduce crude oil and gas import dependence.
    • Expand hydrocarbon reserves from 1,600 MTOE to 2,200 MTOE.
    • Increase production from 62 MTOE to 80 MTOE.
    • Strengthen India’s energy security and support Atmanirbhar Bharat.

    Why is it Needed?

    • India imports over 88% of crude oil and about 50% of natural gas.
    • Deepwater exploration is costly and risky, discouraging private investment.
    • Existing oil fields are witnessing declining production.

    Challenges

    • Long gestation period (8 to 10 years).
    • High risk of unsuccessful exploration.
    • High development costs may affect commercial viability.
    • Dependence on foreign deepwater technology.
    • Need to offset declining output from ageing fields.

    Value Addition

    • Major offshore basins: Krishna Godavari, Cauvery, Mahanadi, Mumbai Offshore and Andaman.
    • Deepwater: 400 to 1,500 m water depth.
    • Ultra Deepwater: More than 1,500 m.

    [2025] Consider the following activities:
    I. Production of crude oil
    II. Refining, storage and distribution of petroleum
    III. Marketing and sale of petroleum products
    IV. Production of natural gas
    How many of the above activities are regulated by the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board in our country?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] Only three

    [D] All the four

  • BS-III vehicles may require some modifications to use E20 fuel: govt.

    Why in the News

    The Union government told Parliament that some BS-III vehicles manufactured before 2016 may need rubber parts and gasket replacements to run on E20 fuel, even as the citizens’ advocacy group Team Bharat met the Petroleum Ministry demanding continued supply of E10 petrol and raised a conflict of interest allegation against a senior minister. The overlapping developments surface the same underlying dispute over who bears the cost of India’s ethanol blending programme.

    What is the Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP)?

    • The Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP) aims to blend ethanol with petrol to:
      • Reduce dependence on imported crude oil.
      • Lower vehicular emissions.
      • Support farmers by creating demand for sugarcane and other ethanol feedstocks.
      • Improve energy security and promote cleaner fuels.
    • India achieved the 20% ethanol blending (E20) target in 2025-26, ahead of schedule.

    Government Study on E20 Compatibility

    A study conducted by Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP), Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) and Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) found:

    • BS-III vehicles manufactured before 2016 may require replacement of Rubber hoses, Seals, and Gaskets.
    • The government stated that these replacements can generally be carried out during routine servicing.
    • No major engine modifications are required for most newer cars and two-wheelers compatible with E20.

    Why are Older Vehicles Affected?

    • Ethanol is more corrosive than petrol and can deteriorate older rubber and polymer components.
    • Older fuel systems were not designed for higher ethanol concentrations.
    • Some vehicle owners have reported: Engine misfiring, Fuel leakage, Starting problems, Performance issues (though some complaints may also be linked to contaminated fuel).

    [2025] Consider the following statements:
    Statement I: Of the two major ethanol producers in the world, i.e., Brazil and the United States of America, the former produces more ethanol than the latter.
    Statement II: Unlike in the United States of America where corn is the principal feedstock for ethanol production, sugarcane is the principal feedstock for ethanol production in Brazil.
    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    [A] Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II explains Statement I

    [B] Both Statement I and Statement II are correct but Statement II does not explain Statement I

    [C] Statement I is correct but Statement II is not correct

    [D] Statement I is not correct but Statement II is correct

  • Drawing parallels between A.P., TN airport projects

    Why in News?

    With the Prime Minister set to inaugurate the Bhogapuram Greenfield International Airport in Andhra Pradesh on August 1, an analysis compared its execution with Tamil Nadu’s stalled Parandur airport project.

    Key Highlights

    • Bhogapuram Greenfield International Airport is scheduled for inauguration on 1 August 2026.
    • Parandur Greenfield Airport in Tamil Nadu continues to face delays due to land acquisition and rehabilitation concerns.
    • Land acquisition, compensation, and rehabilitation of affected families remain the principal bottlenecks in large greenfield infrastructure projects.
    • The comparison highlights the importance of timely clearances, stakeholder consultation, and fair compensation for successful infrastructure development.

    Greenfield Airport

    • A new airport developed from scratch on previously undeveloped land, unlike a brownfield airport, which expands or upgrades an existing airport.
    • In India, greenfield airports are approved under the Greenfield Airports Policy, 2008.
    • Approval is granted by the Ministry of Civil Aviation after assessing:
      • Demand and traffic potential
      • Site suitability
      • Environmental and statutory clearances
      • Financial viability
    • Airports are generally developed through public, private, or Public-Private Partnership (PPP) models.

    Value Addition

    • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Civil Aviation.
    • Airport Development Agency: Airports Authority of India (AAI) provides technical support and develops many airports.
    • Constitutional Basis for Land Acquisition: Governed by the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement (RFCTLARR) Act, 2013, which mandates fair compensation, rehabilitation, and social impact assessment.
    • Significance: Greenfield airports improve regional connectivity under the UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik) scheme, promote tourism, attract investment, and support balanced regional economic development.

    [2024] Consider the following airports:

    1. Donyi Polo Airport

    2. Kushinagar International Airport

    3. Vijayawada International Airport.

    In the recent past, which of the above have been constructed as Greenfield projects?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3.