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GS Paper: GS3-15.Science and Technology- Developments and their Applications and Effects in Everyday Life.

  • Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange (EPABX) in Modern Communication

    Why in the News?

    In most modern office environments, internal and external communication is managed through a technology known as EPABX — Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange.

    About EPABX:

    • What is it: It is a system used by offices to manage internal and external phone calls efficiently.
    • Internal and External Communication: It enables intercom communication within the organisation and provides access to external telephone lines through a unified network.
    • Call Handling Features: EPABX can route, transfer, forward, or hold calls, reducing the need for multiple phone lines and improving overall communication.
    • Modern Features: Advanced EPABX systems offer voicemail, call recording, automated attendants, and digital tool integration for business productivity.

    How EPABX Works?

    • Starting a Call: When the phone is picked up, an off-hook signal goes to the EPABX, which responds with a dial tone.
    • Making Internal Calls: Users dial an extension number (like 104), and the EPABX connects them through its internal switching system.
    • Making External Calls: To reach outside numbers, users dial an access code (usually 0) followed by the number; EPABX connects via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
    • Handling Incoming Calls: Calls from outside are routed to the right extension using either a receptionist or an automated system (IVR) in newer setups.
    • Switching Logic: The EPABX system works like a railway yard, directing signals along the correct path between the caller and the recipient.

    Advancements in EPABX Technology:

    • Early Systems: Older EPABX systems used electromechanical switches like crossbars for call routing.
    • Digital Transition: Since the 1980s, systems adopted Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to digitise and share voice signals over fewer lines.
    • VoIP Technology: Modern EPABX uses Voice over IP (VoIP) to transmit calls over the internet, similar to email routing using IP addresses.
    [UPSC 2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference / differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?

    1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.

    2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only technology.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only  (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

  • Botrytis Fungus and Wine-Making

    Why in the News?

    Scientists have found that Botrytis cinerea, the fungus used in high-end sweet wines, cannot be cloned because none of its nuclei carry a full set of chromosomes, a rare genetic trait among fungi.

    About Botrytis Fungus:

    • Overview: Botrytis cinerea, also called noble rot, is a fungus that infects ripe grapes and causes them to shrivel while concentrating sugar and flavour.
    • Fungal Classification: It belongs to the ascomycetes group and produces spores in sac-like structures known as asci, each containing eight ascospores.
    • Role in Winemaking: Under controlled vineyard conditions, Botrytis infection is desirable, as it enhances the sweetness and aroma of wine.
    • How is Wine Made Using It?
      • Effect on Grapes: The fungus dehydrates the grapes, which increases the sugar content and concentrates flavours naturally.
      • Harvesting Method: Grapes affected by Botrytis are hand-harvested, making the process labour-intensive and expensive.
      • Wine Varieties Produced: It is used to produce premium dessert wines such as Sauternes (France), Tokaji Aszú (Hungary), and Trockenbeerenauslese (Germany), known for their complex flavours and high value.

    Significance of Recent Findings:

    • Cloning Discovery: A recent study in Science found that Botrytis cannot be cloned, as no single nucleus contains a full set of chromosomes.
    • Unique Genome Structure: The chromosomes are distributed across multiple nuclei, which is unprecedented in any known fungus, animal, or plant.
    • Scientific Impact: This challenges conventional genetics and may lead to new insights in genome organisation and fungal evolution.
    • Dual Importance: Botrytis is now seen not only as a key player in winemaking but also as a genetic curiosity in modern science.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of alternative sources of energy, ethanol as a viable bio-fuel can be obtained from:

    (a) Potato (b) Rice (c) Sugarcane* (d) Wheat

     

  • India trails in critical tech, particularly semiconductor tech

    Why in the News?

    A new global index called the Critical and Emerging Technologies Index ranks 25 countries based on their strength in five key areas: AI, biotechnology, semiconductors, space, and quantum tech. India scored 15.2 overall, falling far behind top countries like the U.S., China, and those in Europe.

    What is the Critical and Emerging Technologies Index?

    • A global index launched to evaluate how 25 countries perform across five technology sectors: AI, biotechnology, semiconductors, space, and quantum.
    • Developed using public and commercial data, allowing policymakers to compare relative strengths and weaknesses.
    • Weighting of sectors: Semiconductors (35%), AI (25%), Biotechnology (20%), Space (15%), Quantum (5%), based on geopolitical relevance and dual-use potential.

    How does it assess countries’ performance?

    • Sector-wise Evaluation Using Pillars: Each of the five sectors—AI, biotechnology, semiconductors, space, and quantum—is assessed using multiple weighted pillars such as funding, talent, core technologies, infrastructure, and global influence.
    • Weighted Scoring System: The index assigns strategic weights to each sector (e.g., semiconductors 35%, AI 25%) based on geopolitical relevance and dual-use potential, resulting in an overall score that reflects each country’s relative technological strength.

    Why is India behind the top countries in key tech sectors?

    • Lower Investments and Talent Gaps: India lacks deep investments and a large skilled workforce in core tech sectors like semiconductors and quantum computing. Eg: The U.S. leads in AI and chip design due to massive R&D funding and strong academia-industry collaboration.
    • Fragmented Innovation Ecosystem: Unlike the U.S.’s decentralized model or China’s state-led coordination, India’s innovation lacks synergy across government, industry, and academia. Eg: India ranks below France and far behind China in biotech and space sectors despite policy efforts.
    • Limited Manufacturing and Infrastructure: India has weak chip fabrication and limited quantum labs or space tech facilities compared to countries like Taiwan (chips) or Russia (space assets). Eg: India ranks 7th in space while Russia is 3rd due to superior defence assets and launch capabilities.

    Which factors drive U.S. dominance in tech?

    • Massive Investments and Funding: The U.S. leads due to consistent and large-scale public and private investments in emerging technologies. Eg: Heavy funding in AI and semiconductors ensures global leadership in research and innovation.
    • Strong Talent and Research Ecosystem: A world-class workforce, top universities, and a decentralized innovation network strengthen its technological base. Eg: Institutions like MIT and Stanford produce cutting-edge research in quantum and biotech.
    • Strategic Global Partnerships: The U.S. collaborates closely with tech leaders like Japan, South Korea, and Europe, especially in semiconductorsand quantum. Eg: Joint ventures in chip production enhance U.S. resilience and global influence.

    How do China and Europe compare in tech strengths?

    Aspect China Europe Example
    Biotechnology Strong growth due to state-led investments and large talent pool Leading in vaccine R&D, genetic engineering, and pharma Eg: China’s focus on biotech parks; Europe’s mRNA vaccine leadership
    Quantum Technology Rapidly progressing with centralised planning and funding Strong academic research and early quantum computing breakthrough Eg: China’s Jiuzhang quantum computer; Europe’s QuTech (Netherlands)
    Semiconductors Lags behind due to foreign tech dependency and tool import barriers Moderate progress; behind East Asia and U.S. in manufacturing Eg: China’s reliance on ASML’s lithography; Europe’s low chip fab capacity
    Artificial Intelligence (AI) Excels in data volume and AI applications, but weaker algorithms Strong in ethical AI, policy, and funding, but lags behind in deployment Eg: China’s use of AI in facial recognition; Europe’s AI Act regulation
    Space Technology Advanced programs with state backing; lacks international openness Lower funding and limited military use; some success in space science Eg: China’s Chang’e missions; Europe’s ESA satellite projects

     

    Why is the above comparison between Europe and China important for India? 

    • Strategic Benchmarking for Policy and Investment: It helps India identify strength areas (e.g., biotech in Europe, quantum in China) and gaps (e.g., semiconductors) to shape its own technology roadmap, investments, and global collaborations. Eg: India can learn from China’s scale-driven investments in biotech and Europe’s regulatory models in AI for better domestic implementation.
    • Opportunity for Strategic Alliances: Understanding their strengths enables India to form targeted partnerships for tech transfer, research, and market access in complementary areas. Eg: India–EU cooperation in pharmaceutical innovation, or India–China dialogue in quantum research norms can enhance India’s tech footprint.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Strategic Investments in Core Tech Sectors: India should increase targeted funding and incentives in critical areas like semiconductors, AI, and biotech, with a focus on R&D, talent development, and infrastructure. Eg: Expanding PLI schemes to include quantum and chip design startups.
    • Build Global Tech Partnerships and Talent Pipelines: Proactively engage with Europe, Japan, South Korea, and the U.S. for joint research, mutual recognition of standards, and tech collaboration. Eg: Set up Indo-EU research hubs for biotechnology and semiconductor fabrication units with Japan.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2022] Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with special reference to India.

    Linkage: India “lags significantly” in critical technology sectors like semiconductors, which require substantial resources (e.g., advanced manufacturing capabilities, specialized raw materials, skilled talent, significant funding), this question implicitly probes India’s challenges and trailing position in the global technological landscape.

  • The financial toxicity of cancer care in India

    Why in the News?

    The financial strain of cancer is often ignored but can be the most harmful. It not only impacts the patient but also their family and future generations.

    What is the extent of financial toxicity faced by cancer patients in India?

    • High Treatment Costs: Cancer treatments, especially advanced options like immunotherapy, can be prohibitively expensive. For instance, a patient with oral cancer may face annual costs of approximately ₹10 lakh, adding to previous expenses that can total ₹25 lakh over several years. This financial strain often forces families to deplete savings or sell assets to afford care.
    • Impact on Families: Financial toxicity extends beyond the patient to their families, leading to severe economic consequences. Families may resort to selling properties or skipping meals to manage treatment costs, which can entrap them in a cycle of generational poverty.
    • Out-of-Pocket Expenses: A significant portion of healthcare costs is borne out-of-pocket by patients. For example, outpatient expenses can account for nearly 50% of total healthcare costs, which are not covered by insurance schemes like Ayushman Bharat.

    What are the contributing factors to financial toxicity in cancer care?

    • Inadequate Public Health Funding: India’s public health expenditure has historically been below 2% of GDP, resulting in insufficient healthcare infrastructure and personnel in public hospitals. This leads to delays in diagnosis and treatment, particularly for advanced cancer cases that require more costly interventions.
    • Limited Insurance Coverage: Existing insurance schemes primarily cover inpatient costs, leaving patients responsible for outpatient diagnostics and follow-up treatments. This gap significantly contributes to the financial burden on patients and their families.
    • Economic Disparities: Patients from low and middle-income backgrounds face additional hurdles in accessing cutting-edge treatments due to their high costs and limited availability in public health systems.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government? 

    • Health Minister’s Cancer Patient Fund (HMCPF): Established in 2009 under the Rashtriya Arogya Nidhi, this fund provides financial assistance up to ₹5 lakh for cancer treatment at designated Regional Cancer Centers (RCCs).
      • In emergency cases, assistance can go up to ₹15 lakh. The fund aims to support patients living below the poverty line.
    • Ayushman Bharat – Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY): This scheme offers health coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization, including cancer treatments. It is designed for low-income families and is operational across India.
    • State-Specific Schemes: Various states have their own initiatives:
      • Arogyasri Scheme in Andhra Pradesh: Provides free cancer treatment for families with an annual income below ₹5 lakh.
      • Free Chemotherapy in Odisha: Offers free chemotherapy treatment at district hospitals for poor cancer patients.
      • Financial Assistance in Punjab: Up to ₹1.5 lakh is provided for cancer treatment to eligible residents.

    What strategies can be implemented to mitigate financial toxicity? (Way forward)

    • Strengthening Public Healthcare: Increasing government investment in public health could improve access to affordable cancer care.
      • States like Delhi and Kerala have initiated schemes to support direct medical costs, but broader implementation is needed across India.
    • Supportive Measures for Non-Medical Costs: Initiatives such as discounted travel fares for cancer patients can alleviate some financial burdens associated with non-medical expenses. Expanding these programs could provide significant relief.
    • Role of Nonprofits and CSR: Nonprofit organizations play a crucial role in reducing out-of-pocket expenses through various support services. Increased funding from corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives could help these organisations expand their reach and impact.
    • Promoting Philanthropy: Encouraging individual philanthropy among wealthier segments of society could provide critical funding for cancer care initiatives and nonprofits focused on assisting low-income patients.
    • Policy Advocacy: Advocating for policies that address the gaps in insurance coverage and promote equitable access to cancer treatments is essential for reducing financial toxicity in the long term.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society? (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • [pib] GARBH-Ini-DRISHTI: India’s First Ferret Research Facility

    Why in the News?

    India’s first Ferret Research Facility, GARBH-Ini-DRISHTI, was inaugurated at Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI) in Faridabad to boost vaccine development and infectious disease research.

    About GARBH-INi-DRISHTI

    • GARBH-INi-DRISHTI is a data repository and information-sharing hub designed to provide comprehensive clinical and biological insights into maternal and child health.
    • Developed under the GARBH-INi program, it is one of South Asia’s largest pregnancy cohort datasets, offering access to clinical data, medical images, and bio-specimens.
    • The platform includes data from over 12,000 pregnant women, newborns, and postpartum mothers, enabling extensive research into maternal and neonatal health outcomes.
    • It is a collaborative initiative, involving India’s top research institutions and hospitals, ensuring scientific synergy in maternal healthcare.
    • Aims:
      • To enhance maternal and neonatal healthcare research through large-scale data accessibility.
      • To support global researchers in conducting transformative studies that can improve birth outcomes.
      • To provide early insights into pregnancy-related complications, fostering better diagnostic and preventive measures.
      • To develop predictive tools for conditions like preterm birth, ensuring better maternal health interventions.
    • Features:
      • Comprehensive Data Repository: Houses clinical, imaging, and bio-specimen data from thousands of pregnant women and newborns.
      • Advanced Data Access: Researchers can explore detailed datasets to study pregnancy outcomes, foetal health, and postnatal development.
      • Secure and Controlled Access:  Provides clear guidance on data usage and approvals, ensuring ethical research practices.
      • Global Research Platform: Enables nationwide and international collaboration, allowing researchers to work on common healthcare challenges.
      • Supports Policy and Decision-Making:  The data can be leveraged to shape maternal health policies, improve diagnostic protocols, and design effective interventions.

  • China’s Artificial Sun creates Record in Fusion Research

    Why in the News?

    China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST), commonly referred to as the Artificial Sun, has set a new world record by sustaining a high-confinement plasma operation for 1066 seconds. The artificial sun reached an extreme temperature of 100 million degrees Celsius, surpassing its own previous record of 403 seconds.

    What is the EAST Project?

    • EAST is a nuclear fusion research facility developed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (ASIPP) in 2006.
    • It aims to replicate solar fusion reactions to create a sustainable, clean energy source for future power generation.
    • The project serves as a global research platform for fusion experiments and advancing magnetic confinement technology.
    • It uses superconducting magnets to contain ultra-hot plasma, necessary for fusion.

    Comparison with Other Fusion Projects

    • China’s EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak):
      • Record: 1066 seconds at 100 million degrees Celsius (2025).
      • Previous Record: 403 seconds at high confinement mode.
      • Goal: Develop a commercial fusion power plant.
    • Korea’s KSTAR (Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research):
      • Record: 100 million degrees Celsius for 20 seconds (2020).
      • Goal: Sustain a longer plasma confinement period.
    • France’s ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor):
      • Largest global fusion project, involving 35 nations.
      • Expected to achieve plasma ignition by 2035.
      • Focuses on demonstrating large-scale fusion feasibility.

    Significance of This Achievement

    • Record-Breaking Fusion Operation: EAST sustained plasma at 100 million°C for 1066 seconds, surpassing its previous record of 403 seconds.
    • Progress Toward Fusion Power Plants: Prolonged plasma confinement is crucial for achieving continuous, self-sustaining fusion reactions.
    • Potential for Clean Energy: Fusion produces zero carbon emissions and could serve as an unlimited energy source once commercially viable.
    • Global Competition: Other projects like ITER (France) and KSTAR (Korea) are also advancing fusion research, aiming for similar breakthroughs.

    Challenges in Nuclear Fusion

    • Extreme Temperatures: Plasma must be sustained at over 100 million°C, requiring high-energy input.
    • Material Limitations: Reactor components must withstand intense heat and radiation, yet no material can do so indefinitely.
    • Energy Input vs. Output: Current reactors consume more energy than they generate, preventing commercial viability.
    • Magnetic Confinement Issues: Plasma instability can disrupt reactions, making sustained fusion difficult.
    • High Costs: Fusion research requires expensive superconductors, cryogenics, and containment systems.

    Difference between Nuclear Fusion and Fission

    Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission
    Process Combines atomic nuclei to release energy. Splits heavy nuclei to release energy.
    Energy Output Much higher than fission. Comparatively lower.
    Fuel Source Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium, Tritium)—abundant in seawater. Uranium-235, Plutonium-239—limited supply.
    Waste Production Minimal radioactive waste (helium byproduct). Produces long-lived radioactive waste.
    Environmental Risk No meltdown risk, completely safe. Risk of radiation leaks (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima).
    Current Feasibility Still experimental, not yet commercially viable. Commercially used in nuclear power plants.

  • [28th January 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Getting drunk, on homoeopathy

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q.) “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse. (CS Mains  2021)

    Q.) Appropriate local community-level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieving ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain. (CS Mains 2018)

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC Mains has always focused on traditional knowledge of medicine (2019) and the health sector (2020).

    A recent Supreme Court ruling in the case of Bhagwati Medical Hall vs Central Drugs Standard Control Organization & Ors. has highlighted the difficult challenge faced by state governments in controlling the public health risk caused by alcoholic tinctures sold as homoeopathic remedies in India. Despite the Union Government’s efforts to address the issue, the strong influence of the homoeopathic industry has often led to legal battles that prevent real progress.

    Today’s editorial discusses the difficult challenge state governments face in managing the health risks from alcoholic tinctures sold as homoeopathic medicines in India. This information can be useful for supporting your argument in GS Paper 1 and 2 answers.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Alcoholic tinctures sold as homoeopathic remedies in India pose a serious risk to public health.

     

    What are the recent changes in homoeopathic tinctures? 

    • Introduction of Rule 106B: Limits alcohol content in homoeopathic tinctures to 12% and restricts retail sale to 30 ml bottles, with larger bottles (up to 100 ml) allowed only for hospitals.
    • Taxation Post-GST: Alcohol for medicinal purposes is taxed at 18%, significantly lower than State taxes on alcoholic beverages, making tinctures a cheaper alternative.
    • Supreme Court’s Intervention: In the Bhagwati Medical Hall case, the SC upheld that only the Union government can regulate homoeopathic tinctures, emphasizing stricter enforcement to address public health risks.

    What are the implications of the recent regulatory changes in homoeopathy?

    • Regulatory Complexity and Taxation Issues: The regulatory architecture for homoeopathic alcoholic tinctures is highly complex, with overlapping jurisdictions between the Union and States.
      • Post-GST, alcohol for medicinal purposes is taxed at 18%, significantly lower than State taxes on alcoholic beverages, making homoeopathic tinctures a cheaper alternative for consumers.
      • States cannot regulate these tinctures without presidential assent, leading to a lack of quality control and public health oversight.
    • Public Health Hazards: Homoeopathic tinctures containing 12% alcohol are often consumed as substitutes for alcoholic beverages, leading to alcohol-related illnesses such as alcoholic hepatitis.
      • For example: States like Gujarat and Bihar, where alcohol is prohibited, have reported deaths due to the consumption of spurious homoeopathic tinctures..
    • Industry Lawfare and Regulatory Delays: The homoeopathic industry has consistently challenged regulations, such as Rule 106B of the Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945, through prolonged litigation.
      • The Union government’s decision to pursue litigation instead of laying Rule 106B before Parliament has further delayed regulatory enforcement.

    How does the public perception of homoeopathy impact healthcare choices?

    • Misleading Perception of Safety: Many consumers perceive homoeopathic remedies as safe and natural, unaware of the high alcohol content in tinctures.
      • This perception leads to the misuse of homoeopathic tinctures as substitutes for alcoholic beverages, especially in prohibition States like Bihar and Gujarat.
    • Lack of Awareness: Poorly informed consumers may consume homoeopathic tinctures daily, believing they are curing ailments, while unknowingly risking alcohol-related diseases.
      • The absence of clear labelling and warnings exacerbates the problem, as consumers are not fully aware of the health risks associated with these products.
    • Impact on Healthcare Choices: The availability of cheap, alcohol-based homoeopathic tinctures influences healthcare choices, particularly among low-income groups seeking affordable alternatives to conventional medicine.
      • This reliance on homoeopathy can delay or prevent access to evidence-based medical treatments, worsening health outcomes.

    What role should evidence-based research play in validating homoeopathic practices? (Way forward)

    • Need for Regulatory Reforms: Research should inform regulatory decisions, such as whether alcohol should be permitted in homoeopathic and ayurvedic products.
      • Countries like the U.S. and U.K. are considering cancer warnings on alcoholic beverages, highlighting the need for similar scrutiny of alcohol-based medicinal products in India.
    • Public Health Policy: Evidence-based research can guide public health policies, ensuring that regulations prioritize consumer safety over industry interests.
      • Research should also address the misuse of homoeopathic tinctures as substitutes for alcoholic beverages, particularly in prohibition States.

  • [pib] CPGRAMS 3 Years, 70 Lakh Grievances Solved

    Why in the News?

    According to the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG), the Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) resolved over 70 lakh grievances from 2022 to 2024.

    About Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS)

    • CPGRAMS is an online platform that allows citizens to register grievances related to government service delivery, functioning 24×7.
    • It was established in June 2007 by the Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances (DARPG); the National Informatics Centre (NIC) developed the technical framework.
    • The Prime Minister serves as the supreme head of CPGRAMS.

    Key Functions

    • Grievance Lodging & Tracking: Each complaint gets a unique registration number for monitoring.
    • Role-Based Access: Ministries and states can access and resolve relevant grievances.
    • Appeal Facility: Citizens can appeal if they are not satisfied with the resolution.
    • Feedback Mechanism: Complainants can rate the resolution; a “Poor” rating reopens the case for further appeals.

    Exclusions: Subjudice cases, personal/family disputes, RTI queries, matters affecting national/international integrity, and government employees’ service issues.

    Key Reforms to Improve CPGRAMS

    • Reduced Timelines: Grievance resolution deadlines shortened from 30 days to 21 days, with mandatory interim updates.
    • Integrated Platform: A unified portal for all ministries, departments, and states; accessible via web, mobile apps, and UMANG.
    • Feedback & Appeals: Citizens can provide feedback through SMS/email; a “Poor” rating escalates unresolved issues.
    • AI-Driven Process Improvements: Tools like the Tree Dashboard help identify problems and streamline grievance handling.
    • Training & Monitoring: Under SEVOTTAM (Service Excellence through Total Quality Management), Grievance Officers get specialized training, with regular performance reviews to enhance service delivery.

  • Challenges of Posthumous Assisted Reproduction (PAR)

    Why in the News?

    On October 4, 2024, the Delhi High Court allowed the parents of a deceased man to use his frozen semen for posthumous reproduction. The court cited a similar 2018 case in Germany and noted that the ART Act, 2021, doesn’t specifically address such situations.

    What is Posthumous Assisted Reproduction (PAR)?

    • Posthumous reproduction refers to the use of reproductive material (such as sperm or eggs) from a deceased individual to conceive a child after their death.
    • This can include posthumous sperm retrieval, where sperm is collected from a deceased man (typically through medical procedures shortly after death) for future use in assisted reproductive technologies, like in vitro fertilization (IVF).

    What does the Law says in India?

    • The Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Act, 2021 governs all fertility treatments and artificial insemination procedures.
    • The ART Rules, 2022 specify guidelines for posthumous sperm retrieval, but only in cases where the deceased was married, and the surviving spouse is the one requesting the retrieval.
      1. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) rejected the parents’ request, clarifying that the law does not apply to “post-mortem grandparenthood.”
    • The Surrogacy Regulation Act applies exclusively to married couples or women with medical needs for surrogacy and does not include grandparents as “intending grandparents.”

    Challenges posed by Posthumous Assisted Reproduction (PAR):

    PAR presents several legal, ethical, and social challenges:

    • Legal Issues: There’s a lack of clear laws governing the use of gametes after death, especially regarding consent from the deceased and questions about parentage and inheritance. The absence of specific regulations makes it difficult to establish who holds parental rights.
    • Ethical Concerns: Issues include the morality of using a deceased person’s genetic material, the commodification of human tissue, and concerns about grandparenthood. The emotional and ethical implications for surviving family members also come into play.
    • Social and Psychological Issues: Children born through PAR may face challenges related to knowing their deceased parent, and surviving partners may struggle with grief or guilt. Disputes over the deceased’s wishes can complicate family dynamics.
    • Biological Considerations: The long-term storage of gametes can lead to degradation, affecting the quality of embryos or sperm. Preserving genetic material for extended periods also presents technical challenges.
    • Cultural and Religious Concerns: Different cultures and religions may oppose posthumous reproduction, viewing it as morally or spiritually problematic.
    • Access and Equity: PAR can be expensive and may raise issues of access and commercialization, potentially leading to exploitation or unequal access to these technologies.

    PYQ:

    [2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements: 

    1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of egg.

    2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Making affordable generics more reliable

    Why in the News?

    India’s decentralised drug regulation system dominated by State Drug Regulatory Authorities causes inconsistent quality standards. Strengthening oversight is essential to ensure generics are as affordable and effective as branded drugs.

    How Reliable Are Generic Medicines?

    • Bioequivalence to Innovators: Generic medicines are bioequivalent to brand-name drugs, meaning they have the same active ingredient and are intended to work the same way.
    • Affordability and Accessibility: Generics significantly lower healthcare costs, making treatment more accessible, especially for low-income populations.
    • Challenges in Quality: Despite their potential, the reliability of generics has been questioned due to variability in therapeutic outcomes, often caused by differences in excipients, manufacturing processes, and bioequivalence thresholds.

    What are the main quality concerns associated with it?

    • Efficacy and Bioavailability: Studies have shown that while generics are bioequivalent to branded drugs, they may not always achieve the same therapeutic levels.
      • For example, a study on itraconazole showed that only 29% of patients using generic versions achieved the right drug levels in their body within two weeks, compared to 73% of patients using the original branded drug.
    • Manufacturing Variability: The manufacturing processes for generics can differ significantly from those of branded drugs. Variations in excipients (binders, fillers) and production methods can lead to differences in tablet hardness, dissolution rates, and overall drug stability. This variability can result in inconsistent therapeutic outcomes.
    • Regulatory Oversight: India’s decentralized drug regulation system contributes to inconsistent quality standards across states.
      • The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has limited authority over State Drug Regulatory Authorities (SDRAs), leading to regulatory arbitrage where manufacturers exploit weaker oversight. Moreover, the lack of stringent enforcement of stability testing further jeopardizes the quality of generics available in the market.

    What regulatory reforms are needed?  

    • Centralisation of Drug Regulation: A comprehensive overhaul of India’s drug regulation system is necessary. Centralising oversight under the CDSCO would help enforce consistent quality standards across all states and reduce the risk of substandard drugs entering the market.
    • Enhanced Stability Testing Protocols: Uniform stability testing protocols should be established to ensure that all generics maintain their quality under various climatic conditions. This would involve periodic reassessment of approved generics to uphold their efficacy over time.
    • Stricter Impurity Standards: Aligning India’s Pharmacopoeia with international standards regarding permissible impurity levels would improve the overall quality of generic medicines available in the market.

    How can patient and healthcare provider perceptions of generics be improved? (Way forward)

    To enhance patient and healthcare provider confidence in generic medicines, several strategies can be employed:

    • Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating patients about the efficacy and safety of generics compared to branded drugs can help dispel misconceptions that higher-priced medications are superior.
    • Incentives for Healthcare Providers: Offering incentives for prescribing generics can encourage healthcare professionals to recommend these cost-effective alternatives more frequently.
    • Strengthening Quality Assurance: Implementing stronger regulatory frameworks and ensuring compliance with quality standards can build trust among both patients and providers regarding the reliability of generics.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has this activity benefitted the field of biopharma? (UPSC IAS/2018)