GS Paper: GS3-15.Science and Technology- Developments and their Applications and Effects in Everyday Life.

Why in the News

India holds three International Seabed Authority (ISA) exploration contracts covering approximately 95,000 square kilometres across the Central Indian Ocean Basin, the Central Indian Ridge and the Carlsberg Ridge in the international seabed area. Its exploration has identified an estimated 366 million tonnes of polymetallic nodules containing nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese. Under the Deep Ocean Mission, deep sea mining technology, underwater robotics and the MATSYA 6000 human submersible are being developed. The case now put is that this capability raises a prior question rather than settling one: whether everything that can be technologically exploited should necessarily be exploited. The counter position is that these minerals carry legitimate strategic importance for India’s renewable energy, electric mobility and advanced manufacturing ambitions. The tension is between a demonstrated technical capability and an ecosystem whose functioning is not understood well enough to predict what large scale disturbance would do to it.

What is deep sea mining of polymetallic nodules?

1. Polymetallic nodules: Mineral concretions the size of a potato that lie loose on the abyssal seabed at depths of roughly 4,000 to 6,000 metres, formed over millions of years as metals precipitate around a nucleus.
2. Why they are wanted: They carry nickel, copper, cobalt and manganese, the metals used in battery cathodes and in alloys, which ties the deposits to the energy transition.
3. How collection works: A seabed crawler lifts the nodules off the sediment surface. The nodules are then raised through a riser pipe to a surface vessel, and the sediment and water drawn up with them are discharged back into the water column.
4. Where the activity is regulated: Mineral activity on the seabed beyond national jurisdiction is administered by the International Seabed Authority, which issues exploration contracts and has not yet finalised the rules for commercial exploitation.

What does India’s deep ocean research actually show?

1. Biodiversity surveys: Surveys across 19 seamounts have studied around 1,300 deep sea organisms.
2. Species new to science: Nearly 23 of those organisms have been reported as new to science.
3. Mining technology tested: The National Institute of Ocean Technology has tested a mining machine at a depth of about 5,270 metres.
4. Environmental baselines built alongside: The exploration work has been accompanied by extensive environmental and biodiversity studies rather than resource assessment alone.
5. The standing gap: The research continues to reveal previously unknown organisms, so the consequences of large scale seabed disturbance cannot be confidently predicted while the inventory remains incomplete.

Why does strategic importance not settle the question of extraction?

1. Capability is not permission: Technological progress creates the assumption that what can be exploited should be exploited, and the deep ocean is the case where that assumption does not hold.
2. The necessity test: Before extraction is considered, the questions are whether the minerals are genuinely necessary at the proposed scale, whether alternatives exist, and whether demand can be reduced.
3. The demand side routes: Recycling, efficiency, substitution and a circular economy each reduce the quantity of primary metal required, so the case for extraction has to be made against them rather than in their absence.
4. Where the burden sits: Necessity must be demonstrated rather than presumed, which places the onus on the party proposing extraction rather than on the party opposing it.
5. Exploration is separable from exploitation: Investment in deep ocean science advances knowledge, biodiversity assessment, environmental baselines and technology without committing the country to commercial mining.

Why can adaptive management not substitute for the decision itself?

1. The nature of the disturbance: Mining physically disturbs the seabed, so the damage follows from the activity itself rather than from how carefully it is run.
2. Limits of adaptive management: Adjusting practice in response to observed harm requires a baseline against which harm can be detected, and the baseline for these ecosystems is incomplete.
3. Irreversibility: Nodules form over geological time, so the hard substrate they provide is not recreated within any management horizon a contract could set.
4. The question restated: The operative question is not how to mine with minimum damage but whether there is a need to mine at all.
5. Why the timing matters: India’s ISA activities remain at the exploration stage, so a high ecological threshold can be fixed before any commercial decision rather than negotiated after one.

What would leadership on deep sea ecological governance involve?

1. Recognising ecological value: Treating the deep ocean as a precious ecological asset whose value may exceed that of its mineral wealth, rather than as a mineral reserve alone.
2. Using the Mission’s own findings: The knowledge generated under the Deep Ocean Mission can support a conclusion that some poorly understood and potentially irreversible ecosystems are better left undisturbed.
3. Mission LiFE as the domestic anchor: Lower demand, resource efficiency, recycling, substitution and circular consumption already sit in Mission LiFE, so the position has a stated domestic policy basis.
4. Alignment with existing frameworks: Nature based Solutions, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the circular economy share the principle that nature is the capital on which development depends.
5. The role of science: Science establishes not only how far a country can go but also where it must stop, so identifying the frontiers best left untouched is part of its function.

Challenges to deep sea mining governance

1. The exploitation rules are unfinished: The International Seabed Authority has not adopted the regulations for commercial recovery, so there is no agreed standard for environmental thresholds, monitoring or liability. Eg. The two year rule triggered by Nauru in 2021 forced the Authority to face applications even without a completed code.
   The Fix: Hold commercial applications until the exploitation regulations and a liability regime are adopted, and argue that position at the Authority’s Council.
2. The sponsoring State carries the liability: A contractor operates under the sponsorship of a State, which bears responsibility for ensuring compliance, so a private failure becomes a sovereign exposure. Eg. The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea advisory opinion of 2011 set out the due diligence obligations of States sponsoring activity in the Area.
   The Fix: Require every sponsored contractor to post an environmental bond and accept independent monitoring before a sponsorship certificate issues.
3. Sediment plumes travel beyond the mine site: Collection stirs fine sediment that drifts across the seabed, and the discharge from the surface vessel spreads through the water column, so effects extend past the licensed block. Eg. Tracks left by an experimental seabed disturbance in the Peru Basin in 1989 were still visible decades later with little faunal recovery.
   The Fix: Mandate plume modelling and independent monitoring across an agreed buffer around every test and production site.
4. Recovery time exceeds any contract term: Nodule fields and the organisms attached to them re form over millions of years, so a disturbed area is lost for the purposes of any human management cycle. Eg. Sponges, corals and other attached species in the Clarion Clipperton Zone depend on the hard nodule surface as their only available substrate.
   The Fix: Designate no mining reference zones of ecological significance inside each contract area before exploitation is licensed, not after.
5. India has no domestic law for activity in the Area: The Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act, 2002 governs India’s own offshore areas, while activity in the international seabed area is covered only by contract conditions. Eg. India’s exploration contracts sit beyond national jurisdiction, where domestic environmental clearance procedures do not apply at all.
   The Fix: Enact a domestic statute fixing environmental assessment, monitoring and liability standards for Indian entities operating in the Area.
6. Demand forecasts may not survive a change in battery chemistry: The commercial case for nodules rests on nickel and cobalt demand, which falls as cell chemistries shift away from those metals. Eg. Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cells use neither nickel nor cobalt and have taken a growing share of electric vehicle batteries.
   The Fix: Tie any extraction decision to a periodically revised national critical mineral demand assessment that accounts for substitution and recycling.

Conclusion

India’s position on the seabed is unusual in that it holds the contracts and the technology to use them, and has not yet taken a decision to exploit. That interval is where an ecological threshold can be written in as a condition rather than conceded later as a compromise. The two commitments pull against each other, since the same mineral demand the energy transition generates is what makes the seabed attractive, and reducing that demand is what would make the seabed unnecessary. The point to watch is what India argues when the rules for commercial recovery come to a decision at the Authority, because that is where a principle has to become a stated national position.

Government Initiatives for deep ocean science and the blue economy

1. Deep Ocean Mission: Launched in 2021 under the Ministry of Earth Sciences with an outlay of about Rs 4,077 crore, it runs on six pillars covering deep sea mining technology and a manned submersible, ocean climate change advisory services, technologies for deep sea biodiversity, ocean survey and exploration, energy and freshwater from the ocean, and an advanced marine station for ocean biology.
2. Samudrayaan: The manned ocean mission under the Deep Ocean Mission, designed to take a crew to a depth of 6,000 metres in the MATSYA 6000 submersible.
3. O SMART: The Ocean Services, Modelling, Application, Resources and Technology scheme, which funds ocean observation, forecasting and marine resource services.
4. National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research: Headquartered in Goa, it runs India’s polar and Southern Ocean research programmes and supports ocean science campaigns.
5. Deccan High Level Principles on Blue Economy: Adopted at Chennai under India’s G20 Presidency in 2023, they set out an agreed framework for sustainable ocean management.

Back2Basics: International Seabed Authority (ISA)

1. What it is: An autonomous international organisation established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982 and its 1994 Implementation Agreement.
2. Mandate: It organises and controls all mineral related activity in the Area, meaning the seabed and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, which UNCLOS designates the common heritage of mankind.
3. Membership and seat: It is headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica, and its membership comprises every State party to UNCLOS, India included.
4. What it issues: It grants exploration contracts to State sponsored contractors and is still drafting the exploitation regulations, known as the Mining Code, that would govern commercial recovery.

Matching Previous Year Question

“[2026] Which of the following statements with regard to India’s Deep Ocean Mission is/are correct?

1. It was launched by the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, Government of India.

2. Matsya-6000 has been designed to carry 3 people for deep sea exploration.

3. Samudrayaan is a project under this mission.

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 2 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B”