The monsoonal rainfall in India is concentrated only in four months and more than 50% of the net sown area is rainfed only. Irrigation is thus essential to overcome spatial and temporal variation of rainfall.

Archaeological and historical records show that from ancient times we have been constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation. Not surprisingly, we have continued this tradition in modern India by building dams in most of our river basins. Before we look at these methods of irrigation in detail, let’s have a look at some of the hydraulic structures used in ancient India!

Some Hydraulic Structures used in Ancient India:

• In the first century BC, Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water harvesting system channelling the flood water of the river Ganga.
• During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes and irrigation systems were extensively built.
• Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been found in Kalinga (Orissa), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur (Maharashtra), etc.
• In the eleventh century, Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
• In the 14^th century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for supplying water to the Siri Fort Area.

Coming back to irrigation in the present day India, let’s look at some important facts and figures before we move forward:

Some important facts and figures:

• The net irrigated area = 66.1 million hectares.
• Total/Gross Irrigated Area = 92.6 million hectares.
• Irrigation Intensity in India = (Gross Irrigated Area ÷Gross Sown Area) * 100

= (92.6 ÷ 194.4) *100

= 47.6%

More than 50% of the country’s cropped area depends exclusively on rainfall, most of which is concentrated in a few months of the year. Even where the annual overall precipitation is high, the available moisture is not adequate to support multiple cropping.

Ultimate Irrigation Potential:

As seen in the above figures, only about 66mha i.e. 47.6% of the net sown area is estimated to be irrigated. There is a need to bring more cropped area under assured irrigation so as to increase agricultural productivity and production.

The total ultimate irrigation potential of the country has been estimated as 140mha, with about 76 mha from surface water sources and about 64mha from groundwater sources.

Irrigation – Sources and Methods

The main sources of irrigation in India are:

1. Canals
2. Wells (and tubewells)
3. Tanks

The relative importance of these has been changing from time to time. Let’s look at these in detail:

1. Canal Irrigation:

• A canal is an artificial watercourse constructed for water supply and irrigation.

• There are two types of canals:
  1. Inundation Canals – These are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs etc at their head. Such canals are useful only during the rainy season
  2. Perennial Canals – These are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river. Most of the canals at present in India are perennial.
• Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and an extensive command area. Therefore the main concentration of canal irrigation is in the northern plains.
• The canals are practically absent from the peninsular plateau region because of rocky terrain. However, the coastal and the delta regions in South India have some canals for irrigation.

• The percentage of canal irrigation area to total irrigated area in the country has fallen from about 40% in 1950-51 to less than 25% at present.
• The states UP, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Bihar account for about 60% of the canal irrigated area in the country.
• Merits of canal irrigation:
  1. Perennial Source
  2. Provides safety from droughts
  3. Brings fertile sediments to the fields
  4. Economical to serve a large area

• Demerits:
  1. Canal water soaks into the ground and leads to water logging, increases salinization, and leads to marshy conditions leading to malaria and flooding
  2. Wastage of water.

2. Wells (and Tube Wells)

• A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. An ordinary well is about 3-5 metres deep but deeper wells up to 15 metres are also dug.
• This method of irrigation has been used in India from time immemorial. Various methods are used to lift the ground water from the well. Some of the widely used methods are the persian wheel, reht, charas or mot, and dhinghly (lever) etc.
• A tube well is a deeper well (generally over 15 metres deep) from which water is lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric motor or a diesel engine.

• Well irrigation is gradually giving way to energized tube wells. But there are many wells still in use where electricity is not available or the farmers are too poor t0 afford diesel oil.
• This method of irrigation is popular in those areas where sufficient sweet ground water is available.
• It is particularly suitable in areas with permeable rock structure which allows accumulation of ground water through percolation. Therefore wells are seen more in areas with alluvial soil, regur soil, etc. and less seen in rocky terrain or mountainous regions.
• These areas include a large part of the great northern plains, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, parts of the Narmada and the Tapi valleys and the weathered layers of the Deccan trap and crystalline rocks and the sedimentary zones of the peninsula
• However, the greater part of peninsular India is not suitable for well irrigation due to rocky structure, uneven surface and lack of underground water.
• Large dry tracts of Rajasthan, the adjoining parts of Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat and some parts of Up have brackish ground water which is not fit for irrigation and human consumption and hence unsuitable for well irrigation
• At present irrigation from wells and tubewells accounts for more than 60% of the net irrigated area in the country.
• UP has the largest area under well irrigation which accounts for 28% of the well irrigated area of the country. U.P., Rajasthan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh account for about three-fourths of the total well-irrigated area

• Merits of well irrigation
  • Simplest
  • Cheapest
  • Well is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises. Canal irrigation, on the other hand, is controlled by other agencies and cannot be used at will.
  • Some ground water salts are useful for crops
  • Does not lead to salinization and flooding problems
  • There is a limit to the extent of canal irrigation beyond the tail end of the canal while a well can be dug at any convenient place.
• Demerits
  • Only limited area can be irrigated. Normally, a well can irrigate 1 to 8 hectares of land.
  • Not suitable for dry regions
  • Overuse may lead to lowering of water table

3. Tank irrigation

• A tank is a reservoir for irrigation, a small lake or pool made by damming the valley of a stream to retain the monsoon rain for later use.

• It accounts for approximately 3% of the net irrigated area in India.
• Tank Irrigation is popular in the peninsular plateau area where Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the leading states.
• Andhra Pradesh has the largest area (29%) of tank irrigation in India followed by Tamil nadu (23%).

• It is practised mainly in the peninsular region due to the following reasons:
  • The undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and wells
  • There is little percolation of water due to hard rock structure and ground water is not available in large quantities.
  • Most of the rivers are seasonal; there are many streams which become torrential during the rainy season – so the only way to use this water is to impound it by constructing bunds and building tanks. Also, it is easy to collect rainwater in natural or artificial pits because of impermeable rocks.
  • Scattered nature of agricultural fields
• Merits
  • Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve cost for their construction
  • Independent source for an individual farmer or a small group of farmers
  • longer life span
  • can be used for fishing also
• Demerits
  • Depends on rain and these tanks may dry up during the dry season
  • Silting of their beds
  • Require large areas
  • Evaporation losses
  • Sometimes there might be a need to lift the water to take it to the field

Irrigation water is generally applied to crops by:

• Flooding on the field surface
• Applying beneath the soil surface
• Spraying under pressure
• Applying in drops in the crop root zone

The application method must ensure a uniform distribution of water along the cropped field as well as in the root zone of the crop with high application efficiency. The ratio of water stored in the root zone to that delivered to the field should be maximum. There should be minimum or no wastage of water either through surface run-off or deep percolation below the root zone of a crop.

Several water application methods are practised to suit different soil types, water supply and its quantity, the topography of the land, crops to be irrigated and costs.

Surface Application Methods:

• In this method, water is applied to the crop by flooding it on the soil surface.
• This method requires proper land grading for the flow of water over the land surface.
• More than 95% of the irrigated area in India is under surface irrigation.
• Merits:
  • It is simple in layout and operation.
  • The amount of manual labour required is minimum.
  • It does not obstruct the use of machinery for land preparation, cultivation, harvesting, etc.
• Demerits:
  • The overall irrigation efficiency is low. The worldwide average irrigation in canal command areas shows an overall efficiency of as low as 28%.
  • It may result in water=logging and soil salinization besides the huge amount of water losses.
• Surface Irrigation methods may be broadly classified as:
  • Border Method:
    • Borders are formed by dividing the field into a number of strips which are separated by ridges.
    • The strips are generally levelled along the width but may or may not have slope along the length.
    • An irrigation channel runs along the upper end of the borders.
    • The water is diverted from the channel into the strips. The water flows slowly towards the lower end, wetting the soil as it advances. Extra water is generally removed from the strip by means of a collecting drain. It is provided at the other end.
    • This method is suitable in the fields where the soil is sufficiently capable of absorbing the water.
    • Source
  • Furrow Method:
    • Furrow irrigation is adaptable to a great variation in slope, crops and topography.
    • When the crops are grown and planted in rows this method is the best suited. In this method, unlike flooding, only a part of the field is wetted. The area wetted varies from 1/2 to 1/5 of total area over which crops are grown.
    • Close growing crops, on slopes and soils that develop crust after being wet, may be irrigated with small furrows which are called corrugations or rills.
    • Source

    • 

      Source

    • The main design parameters of furrows are
      • Longitudinal slope
      • Inflow stream design
      • Furrow spacing:
        • Furrow spacing should be such that the lateral water movement of the moisture wets the ridges by the time irrigation is complete. The lateral movement from the furrows depends on the soil type.
        • Furrow spacing is determined by agronomic requirements of row-to-row spacing and machinery to be used for planting and cultivation.
        • Furrow length: Longer furrows = more percolation and less run-off
      • Benefits of this method:
        • In this method plants in their early tender age are not damaged by the flow of water.
        • The land between the rows of plants is utilised to construct furrows, therefore useful irrigable land is not wasted.
        • As the area wetted is just 1/2 to 1/5 of the cropped area of the field, puddling and crusting of the soil is minimum.

• • •  
    • Check basin:
      • It consists of running water into relatively level plots surrounded by small ridges.
      • The length of the plot is generally less than 3 times the width.
      • The main and lateral channels irrigate The main channel is aligned along the upper end of the field and checks are made on the either side of the lateral channels.

      • 

        Source

      • 

        Source

      • The check basins are especially suitable for heavy soils with low infiltration rate or highly permeable sandy soils.
      • The key to attaining high irrigation efficiency in the design of the check basin is to spread water over the entire basin as rapidly as possible.
      • Therefore, the use of large inflow stream reduces water spread time over the basin.

Sprinkler and Micro-Sprinkler Application:

• Sprinklers:
  • This system sprinkles water in a manner similar to rainfall so that run-off and deep percolation losses are avoided and the uniformity of application is quite high.
  • The system consists of sprinkler heads or nozzles, which are mounted on risers in lateral lines taken from the main line, which is further connected to a pumping unit.

  • 

    

    Source

  • This system of irrigation is suitable when:
    • The soil is too porous for good distribution by surface irrigation.
    • The fields have an uneven surface.
    • The soil is easily erodable.
    • The water supply is just sufficient for crop growth.
  • Merits:
    • Sprinklers can be used on all soil types of any topography.
    • It entails increased irrigation frequency which has a positive effect on crop yield.
    • In this method, a water saving of 30% to 50% is reported in comparison to the surface method of irrigation
    • Thus by introducing sprinklers, an additional area ~ up to 50% can be brought under irrigation besides increased crop yields
    • The overall efficiency of the system is above 80% and no land is wasted on making bunds and channels, and about 40-50% of saving in labour as compared to surface irrigation.
    • Only 2 to 5% water is lost through evaporation.
  • Demerits:
    • Expensive
    • Requires continuous maintenance and skill for installation and operation
    • The high energy requirement for operation as sprinklers operate at water pressure ranging from 1 to 10 kg/sq cm.
    • Wind interferes with the distribution pattern. It reduces the spreading rate and in turn the efficiency. Under high temperatures and strong winds heavy evaporation loss takes place thereby offsetting the saving in water.
  • Micro-sprinklers:
    • It sprinkles around the root zone with small sprinklers that work under low pressure.
    • In this method, water is applied only to the root zone area unlike to the entire field as in the case of sprinkler irrigation method.
    • This method is highly suitable for orchard crops and vegetable crops.

Drip Application

• In this method, the application of water is precise but slow as discrete drops, continuous drops, tiny streams or miniature sprays through mechanical devices, called emitters or applicators located at selected points along water delivery lines.
• This is useful in areas with water scarcity and salt problems.
• Drip irrigation system consists of main pipe, sub-mains, lateral valves, drippers or emitters, a riser valve, vacuum breakers, pressure gauges, water metres, filters, fertiliser tanks etc.
• These are designed to supply water at desired rates (1 to 10 litres/hour) directly to the soil.
• Low pressures ranging from 0.35 to kg/sq cm are sufficient for drip system

• 

  Source

• Merits:
  • Water saving
  • Enhanced plant growth and yield
  • Saving of labour and energy
  • More suited to poor soils
  • Controls weed growth
  • Easy operations
  • Fertilisers or other chemical amendments can be efficiently applied to individual or separate plants using drip irrigation.
  • Flexibility in operation
  • No soil erosion
  • Requires less land preparation
  • Minimum disease and pest problems
  • This method has been found to be of great value in reclaiming and developing desert and arid areas.
• Demerits:
  • Expensive
  • Technical Limitations
  • Requirement of high skills for design, installation and operation

Nai Manzil Scheme

OBJECTIVES –

• To address the educational and livelihood needs of minority communities lagging behind in terms of educational attainments.
• It aims to provide educational intervention by giving the bridge courses to the trainees and getting them Certificates for Class XII and X from distance medium educational system.
• It seeks to provide trade basis skill training in four courses at the same time of formal education, in field of (i) Manufacturing (ii) Engineering (iii) Services (iv) Soft skills. It intends to cover people in between 17 to 35 age group from all minority communities as well as Madrasa students.
• Nodal Ministry –The Union Ministry of Minority Affairs

Nai Roshni

OBJECTIVES –

• Empower and install confidence in women of minority communities by equipping them with knowledge, tools and techniques to interact with government systems, banks and intermediaries
• Nodal Ministry –The Union Ministry of Minority Affairs

USTAAD Scheme

OBJECTIVES –

• The scheme aims at preserving and promoting the rich heritage of the traditional arts & crafts of the Minority communities. 2.In the light of globalisation & competitive market, these crafts have gradually lost their employability. 3.It also envisages at boosting the skill of craftsmen, weavers and artisans who are already engaged in the traditional ancestral work.
• Nodal Ministry –The Union Ministry of Minority Affairs

Hunar Haat

OBJECTIVES –

• It is aimed at promoting and supporting artisans from Minority communities and providing them domestic as well as international market for display and sell their products.
• The Hunar Haat exhibition has been organised by the National Minorities Development & Finance Corporation (NMDFC) under “USTTAD” scheme In it about 184 master artisans from across the country are showcasing their traditional art and skills at about 100 stalls at the international platform.
• It seeks to provide an excellent platform to artisans belonging to Minority communities from across nation to display their art and skills before domestic and international visitors.
• Nodal Ministry –The Union Ministry of Minority Affairs

Stanapan Suraksha Scheme

OBJECTIVES –

• To promote breastfeeding and keep a tab on “inappropriate” promotion of baby food items. Stanpan Suraksha is first-of-its-kind app deveopled for promoting breastfeeding and baby food promotion reporting mechanism.
• Using it any person can click a photograph of inappropriate baby food promotion around them and related equipment and send it to BPNI.
• The app also has a city-wise database of trained breastfeeding counsellor to educate and provide assistance to mothers during antenatal and postnatal period. It has sign up option for mothers who wish to become a breastfeeding counsellor, pledging for petition and donation.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Tribal Affairs

Eklavya Model Residential Schools

• Eklavya Model Residential School Scheme was started in 1998
• First school was started in the year 2000 in Maharashtra.
• EMRSs have been functioning as institutions of excellence for tribal students.
• In order to further educational opportunities for more ST children, Government has sought to extend the facility of EMRSs in all the 672 Blocks where ST population is more than 50% of the total population in a span of next five years.
• Funds for establishing the school are arranged by both Centre and State government together.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Tribal Affairs

Pre-Matric Scholarship Scheme

OBJECTIVES –

• To decrease the dropout rate in the transition from elementary to the secondary stage. Given for Class 9th and 10th.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojana

OBJECTIVES –

• Educational empowerment of Scheduled castes.
• Central assistance is provided to the implementing agencies viz. State Governments/UT Administrations/ Central and State Universities/ Non-Governmental Organisations/Deemed Universities in the private sector, for construction of fresh hostels/expansion of existing hostel facilities for Scheduled Castes students.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

National Overseas Scholarship Scheme.

OBJECTIVES –

• Financial support to SC and ST students pursuing Master’s level courses and PhD/Post-Doctoral courses abroad.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

Scheme for up-gradation of merit of SC students.

OBJECTIVES –

• Upgrade the merit of SC students by providing them remedial and special coaching in classes IX to XII.
• Income Ceiling: Rs. 3.00 Lakh per annum .
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

Self Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS)

OBJECTIVES –

• To rehabilitate all the remaining manual scavengers and their dependents in alternative occupations.The main features of the Scheme include one-time cash assistance, training with stipend and concessional loans with subsidy for taking up alternative occupations.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

Sugmay Bharat Abhiyaan

OBJECTIVES –

• The target of this scheme is to make at least fifty government buildings disabled-friendly under the campaign in each of the state till the end of 2016 and make 25 per cent of the public transport vehicles under the government as disabled-friendly till mid-2017.
• A remarkable feature of the scheme is that a website will also be made where the people can put their views on the accessibility of any building.
• The international airports in the country and railway stations which come under A1, A and B categories will be made fully disabled-friendly.
• Special set-top boxes will be made available to make watching TV more convenient for the visually impaired. In the next 5 years, almost 200 persons will be trained to speak in sign languages on government TV channels. Government websites will also be made friendlier by using text to speech option.
• Under the scheme, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment will give free motorized tricycles to persons with 70-90% disability.
• A Sugamya Bharat mobile app which can provide information on disabled-friendly public facilities in a city, will be launched under the scheme.
• For awareness, a team of experts will conduct workshops for sensitizing the main parties including builders and activists.
• Nodal Ministry – Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

Disha

OBJECTIVES –

• Early Intervention and School Readiness Scheme.
• This is an early intervention and school readiness scheme for children upto 10 years with the disabilities covered under the National Trust Act.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

VIKAASDay Care

OBJECTIVES –

• A day care scheme for persons with autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation and multiple disabilities, above 10 years for enhancing interpersonal and vocational skills.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

SAMARTH Respite Care

OBJECTIVES –

• A scheme to provide respite home for orphans, families in crisis, Persons with Disabilities (PwD) from BPL, LIG families with at least one of the four disabilities covered under the National Trust Act.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

GHARAUNDA

OBJECTIVES –

• Group Home for Adults.
• This scheme provides housing and care services throughout the life of the person with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

NIRMAYA Health Insurance Scheme.

OBJECTIVES –

• This scheme is to provide affordable Health Insurance to persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

SAHYOGI Caregiver training scheme

OBJECTIVES –

• A scheme to set up Caregiver Cells (CGCs) for training and creating skilled workforce of caregivers to care for Person with Disabilities (PwD) and their families.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

GYAN PRABHA Educational support

OBJECTIVES –

• Scheme to encourage people with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities for pursuing educational/ vocational courses.
• Nodal Ministry –Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment.

PRERNA Marketing Assistance.

OBJECTIVES –

• A marketing scheme to create viable & widespread channels for the sale of products and services produced by persons with autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation and multiple disabilities
• Nodal Ministry – Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment

1. Important Temples/Monasteries/Stupa/Caves- Click2view

2. Important Historical Sculptures- Click2view

1.Excavations in Kutch shed light on early Harappan custom

• Archaeological excavations undertaken by a group of researchers have shed light on the custom and burial rituals that were prevalent during the early Harappan phase.
• The team which camped in Khatiya village of Kutch unearthed several skeletal remains from a cemetery-like burial site where 26 graves out of the nearly 300-odd ones were excavated.

2.Chalukyan sculpture of Siva found in Andhra Pradesh

• A rare sculpture of Lord Siva and Goddess Parvati dating back to the 7th century was discovered at a Chalukyan temple in Satyavolu village of Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh.
• The red sandstone sculpture portrays Lord Siva as the therapeutic physician (Rudra Bhaishajana) — as described in Rigveda — in which he holds a bowl in his left hand, which contains medicine from herbs to revive the ailing horse lying at his feet.
• Siva was fairly represented in sculptural art of ancient India in many forms right from the Indus Valley civilization to the late medieval period.

Chalukyan Architecture (5th – 8th CE)

• 1. The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of architecture.
  2. This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara styles.
  3. The building material they used was reddish-golden Sandstone found locally.
  4. The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
  5. The temples are located on the banks of River Tungabhadra and Malprabaha in Karnataka and Alampur in Andhra Pradesh.
  6. Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti..
  7. Badami temples: Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in Dravida style. Papanatha temple is in Nagara style.
  8. Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here – 4 in Nagar style and 6 in Dravida style.

3.Archaeologists find pre-Columbian mass child sacrifice site in Peru

• A group of archaeologists has discovered the remains of more than 50 children who were ritually sacrificed by the pre-Columbian Chimu culture on the northern coast of what is now Peru
• The new sacrifice site was discovered in the Pamapa La Cruz area in Huanchaco, a coastal district of Trujillo, Peru’s third-largest city

Other similar places

• In Huanchaquito, the remains of over 140 children and 200 llamas slain some 550 years ago were discovered
• It reinforces the idea that Huanchaco was a place where massive sacrifices of children were made during the Chimu culture

Pre-Columbian Chimu culture

• The Chimú culture was centred on Chimor with the capital city of Chan Chan, a large adobe city in the Moche Valley of present-day Trujillo, Peru
• The culture arose about 900 AD, succeeding the Moche culture
• The Chimú people are best known for their distinctive monochromatic pottery and fine metal working of copper, gold, silver, bronze, and tumbaga (copper and gold)
• The pottery is often in the shape of a creature or has a human figure sitting or standing on a cuboid bottle

4.India gets its 37th UNESCO World Heritage Site

• India’s nomination of the “Victorian and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai” has been inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage list.
• The decision was taken at the 42^nd session of the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO at Manama in Bahrain today.
• This achievement is especially remarkable in the view of the successive inscription of another Indian city after Ahmedabad last year

About the Ensembles

• Together, this architectural ensemble represents the most remarkable collection of Victorian and Art Deco buildings in the world which forms the unique character of this urban setting, unparalleled in the world.
• The Ensemble consists of 94 buildings primarily of 19^th century Victorian Gothic revival and early 20^th century Art Deco style of architecture with the Oval Maidan in the centre.
• The 19^th century Victorian buildings form part of the larger Fort precinct situated to the east of the Oval Maidan.
• These public buildings include the Old Secretariat (1857-74), University Library and Convention Hall (1874-78), the Bombay High Court (1878), the Public Works Department Office (1872), Watson’s Hotel (1869), David Sasoon Library (1870), the Elphinstone College(1888), etc.
• The Art Deco styled buildings to the west of the Oval Maidan were raised in early 20^th century on the newly reclaimed lands at Marine Drive and symbolised the shift in expression to represent contemporary aspirations.

UNESCO World Heritage Properties in India

• In the past 5 years alone, India has managed to get inscribed seven of its properties/sites on the World Heritage List of UNESCO.
• India now has overall 37 World Heritage Inscriptions with 29 Cultural, 07 Natural and 01 Mixed sites.
• While India stands second largest in number after China in terms of number of World Heritage properties in ASPAC (Asia and Pacific) region, it is overall sixth in the world.

5.Thanjavur Paintings

Thanjavur Paintings

• It is a classical South Indian painting style, which was inaugurated from the town of Thanjavur and spread across the adjoining and geographically contiguous old Tamil country.
• The art form draws its immediate resources and inspiration from way back about 1600 AD, a period when the Nayakas of Thanjavur under the suzerainty of the Vijayanagara Rayas.
• It is distinguished by its famous gold coating.
• However, it can safely be surmised that Thanjavur painting, as we know it now, originated in the Maratha court of Thanjavur (1676 – 1855).
• It has been recognized as a Geographical indication by the Government of India in 2007-08.

6.Ancient rocks in India give clues to early life

Cambrian Explosion

• It refers to the sudden appearance in the fossil record of complex animals with mineralized skeletal remains 541 million years ago.
• Researchers have found the oldest clue to the mystery of animal life in ancient rocks and oils dating back at least 100 million years before the famous Cambrian explosion of animal fossils.
• Researchers at the University of California tracked molecular signs of animal life, called biomarkers, as far back as 660-635 million years ago during the Neoproterozoic era.
• In ancient rocks and oils from India, Oman, Siberia, they found a steroid compound produced only by sponges, which are among the earliest forms of animal life.

Demosponge

• A sponge is a member of the phylum Porifera.
• It is a simple marine animal with many cells, but no mouth, muscles, heart or brain.
• Demosponges is a class that contains most of the sponges.
• The sponges in this class make their skeleton from Spongin, a special protein.

7.Buddhist site museum at Lalitgiri Odisha

• One of the earliest Buddhist settlements in Odisha, Lalitgiri (Located in Cuttack district), where excavations have yielded ancient seals and inscriptions, has been converted into a museum.

Lalitgiri Museum

• Located in Cuttack district, it will be the third site museum of the Bhubaneswar circle of the ASI after Ratnagiri and Udaygiri.
• The three sites together form the Diamond Triangle of Buddhism in Odisha.
• The museum complex is spread over 4,750 sq. m. The building and auditorium are built over 1,310 sq. m. The complex has been constructed at a cost of ₹10 crore.

Historical importance of Lalitgiri

• Excavations at Lalitgiri have yielded the remains of four monasteries, showing cultural continuity from the post-Mauryan period till the 13th century CE.
• Tantric Buddhism was practiced at this site.
• The centre of attraction is a relic casket containing corporal remains found inside the Mahastupta.
• Huge sculptures of Buddha, architectural fragments of Viharas and Chaityas are arranged period-wise.
• The central gallery is designed after a Buddha Mandala with a colossal Buddha image at the centre and six Bodhisattva images surrounding it.

8.Reconstitution of Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)

• The Government has reconstituted the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), New Delhi for a period of three years till 2022.

Indian Council of Historical Research

• The ICHR is an autonomous body of the HRD Ministry, which had been established by an Administrative Order of the then Ministry of Education.
• The body has provided financial assistance to the historians and direction to the research scholars in their multifarious topics of historical research through established historians and scholars of the country.
• ICHR disburses funds for carrying out research to Indian as well as foreign scholars on their applications for fellowships, grants, and symposia.

9.The Indian Museum of the Earth (TIME)

• India has set in motion an ambitious plan to create Indianised version of the world-famous Smithsonian Museum, showcasing Indian subcontinent’s evolutionary history.

The Indian Museum of the Earth (TIME)

• This museum will be modelled on the American Museum of Natural History, or the Smithsonian museum in the U.S.
• The museum, which will be set up as a public-private partnership, would be located somewhere in NCR.
• Unlike static museums that are commonplace, the proposed Earth museum would be a dynamic place to encourage fossil research, student activity, public outreach besides driving policy decisions.
• The museum would be having a repository where individual collectors and researchers can submit their life long collection for safekeeping and allowing future generation researchers to study those samples.

10. Development of Rakhi Garhi Archaeological Site

Rakhi Garhi

Rakhi Garhi is being developed as one of the five Identified Iconic Archaeological Sites, informed the Minister of Culture and Tourism.
The ancient site of Rakhi-Khas and Rakhi-Shahpur are collectively known as Rakhigarhi, located on the right bank of the now dried up Palaeo-channel of Drishadvati.
It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain in the Hissar district of Haryana.
Seven mounds are located here.
The site has yielded various stages of Harappan culture and is by far one of the largest Harappan sites in India.
The site shows the sequential development of the Indus culture in the now dried up Saraswati basin.

Major findings at Rakhi Garhi

• Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.
  Digging so far reveals a well-planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan.
• The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali.
  Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies.
• There are brick-lined drains to handle sewage from the houses.
  Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found.
• A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver.
• A granary belonging to the mature Harappan phase has been found here.
• Fire altars structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.

Five Iconic Archaeological Sites

The government has proposed to develop five archaeological sites as “iconic sites” with onsite museums in Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Hastinapur (Uttar Pradesh), Sivsagar (Assam), Dholavira (Gujarat) and Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu) in the Union Budget 2020-21.

(1) Rakhigari (Discussed above)

(2) Hastinapur

Hastinapur in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh finds mention in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. One of the most significant discoveries made at this site was of the “new ceramic industry”, which was named the Painted Grey Ware, which as per the report represented the relics of the early Indo-Aryans.

(3) Sivasagar

In Sivasagar (Assam), excavations at the Karenghar (Talatalghar) complex between 2000 and 2003 led to the discovery of buried structures in the north-western and north-eastern side of the complex. Among the structural remains found at the site were ceramic assemblages including vases, vessels, dishes, and bowls, etc. Terracotta smoking pipes were also found.

(4) Dholavira

Dholavira in Gujarat is located in the Khadir island of the Rann of Kutch, and like Rakhigarhi is one of the sites where the remains of the Harappan civilization have been found. It is unique because the remains of a complete water system have been found here.

(5) Adichnallur

Adichnallur lies in the Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu. The urn-burial site was first brought to light during a “haphazard excavation” by a German archaeologist in 1876. Following this, an Englishman Alexander Rae excavated the site between 1889 and 1905.

11. 10th century Buddhist Monastery uncovered in Jharkhand’s Hazaribagh

Details of the excavation

• The findings were significant since the monastery is on the old route to Varanasi, 10 km from Sarnath, where the Buddha gave his first sermon.
• Archaeologists found four statues of the deity Tara in Varad Mudra and six statues of the Buddha in bhumisparsa Mudra
• So it is a significant finding as deity Tara’s statues mean this was an important centre of the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism.
• Vajrayana is a form of Tantric Buddhism, which flourished in India from the 6th to 11th century.

Inscription on Krishnadevaraya’s death discovered

• The first-ever epigraphical reference to the date of death of Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya has been discovered in the Tumakuru district of Karnataka.
• Krishna Devaraya was the emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire during 1509–1529. He was the third ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty and is considered to be its greatest ruler.
• He possessed the largest empire in India after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Krishnadevaraya earned the titles Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana (lit, “Lord of the Kannada empire”), Andhra Bhoja (lit, “Andhra Bhoja(Scholar) King”) and Mooru Rayara Ganda (lit, “King of Three Kings”).
• He became the dominant ruler of the peninsula of India by defeating the Sultans of Bijapur, Golconda, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha, and was one of the most powerful Hindu rulers in India.
• Indeed, when the Mughal Emperor Babur was taking stock of the potentates of north India, Krishnadevaraya was rated the most powerful and had the most extensive empire in the subcontinent.
• Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz also visited the Vijayanagara Empire during his reign.

His literary work

• The rule of Krishnadevaraya was an age of prolific literature in many languages, although it is also known as a golden age of Telugu literature.
• He was fluent in many languages like Kannada, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil.
• Eight Telugu poets were regarded as eight pillars of his literary assembly and known as Ashtadiggajas. He himself composed an epic Telugu poem Amuktamalyada.
• He took the title of Abhinava-Bhoja and Sakala-Kala-Bhoja (“Bhoja of all the arts”) in honour of Parmara emperor Bhoja who was a polymath, a master of 64 arts and a military genius.

What does the inscription say?

• As per the inscription, Krishnadevaraya died on October 17, 1529, Sunday.
• Incidentally, this day was marked by a lunar eclipse.
• The inscription also registers the gift of village Honnenahalli in
• Tumakuru for conducting worship to the god Veeraprasanna Hanumantha of Tumakuru.
• The Kalahasti inscription refers to the date of Achyutaraya’s (his successor) coronation as October 21, 1529 AD.

Dickinsonia fossil discovered in Bhimbetka

Researchers have found the first-ever fossil in India of a Dickinsonia —the Earth’s ‘oldest animal’, dating back 570 million years — on the roof of what’s called the ‘Auditorium Cave’ at Bhimbetka.

Dickinsonia

• Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, Russia and Ukraine.
• The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval.
• Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi or even an “extinct kingdom”.
• The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.

What are the new findings?

• Like the awe-inspiring rock shelters themselves, this fossil was discovered by chance.
• Dickinsonia fossils have shown that they could exceed four feet in length but the one found in Bhimbetka is 17 inches long.
• Eleven feet above the ground, almost blending with the rock and easily mistaken by laymen for prehistoric rock art, they found imprints of the Dickinsonia.
• It is believed to be one of the key links between the early, simple organisms and the explosion of life in the Cambrian Period, about 541 million years ago.

Cambrian Explosion and Dickinsonia

• The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ is the term given to the period of time in history when complex animals and other macroscopic organisms such as molluscs, worms, arthropods and sponges began to dominate the fossil record.
• Researchers from Australian found the Dickinsonia fossil since its tissue contained molecules of cholesterol a type of fat that is the hallmark of animal life.

Sulawesi Cave Paintings

• The cave painting depicts a wild boar endemic to the Sulawesi island of Indonesia, where the painting was found.
• The central Indonesian island, which occupies an area of over 174,000 sq. km, is situated between Asia and Australia.
• It has a long history of human occupation.

Significance of the painting

• The archaeologists’ note that the dated painting of the Sulawesi warty pig seems to be the world’s oldest surviving representational image of an animal.
• The painting was made using red ochre pigment and depicts a pig with a short crest of upright hairs and a pair of horn-like facial warts in front of the eyes.
• These pigs have been hunted by humans for tens of thousands of years and are the most commonly depicted animal in the ice age rock art of the island.
• It suggests that they have long been used as food and form a “focus of creative thinking and artistic expression” for people of that time.

Annapurna Idol

• Annapurna, also spelt Annapoorna, is the goddess of food.
  This 18th-century idol, carved in the Benares was stolen from a temple of Varanasi and smuggled out around 100 years ago somewhere around 1913.
• Now is part of the University of Regina, Canada’s collection at the MacKenzie Art Gallery.
• The idol holds a bowl of kheer in one hand and a spoon in the other.

Dairy production in the Indus Valley Civilization

• By analysing residues on ancient pots, researchers show the earliest direct evidence of dairy product processing, thus throwing fresh light on the rural economy of the civilization.
• The studies were carried out on 59 shards of pottery from Kotada Bhadli, a small archaeological site in present-day Gujarat.

A significant outcome of the study

• The study has found residues in a bowl showing that either heated milk or curd could have been served.
• There are also remains of a perforated vessel, and similar vessels were used in Europe to make cheese.
• The Harappans did not just use dairy for their household.
• The large herd indicates that milk was produced in surplus so that it could be exchanged and there could have been some kind of trade between settlements.
• This could have given rise to an industrial level of dairy exploitation.

Sawantwadi Toy

• Sawantwadi toys refers to hand made works of art made of wood in Sawantwadi a town in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Most of these toys are made in the village of Kolgaon in Sawantwadi taluka.
• These toys are made from the wood of the Indian Coral tree (Erythrina variegata).
• Craftsmen who make these toys belong to the Chittari community who came to Sawantwadi from Karwar and Goa.

Renati Chola Era Inscription

Who are the Renati Cholas?

• The Telugu Cholas of Renadu (also called as Renati Cholas) ruled over Renadu region, the present-day Kadapa district.
• They were originally independent, later forced to the suzerainty of the Eastern Chalukyas.
• They had the unique honour of using the Telugu language in their inscriptions belonging to the 6th and 8th centuries.
• The earliest of this family was Nandivarman (500 AD) who claimed descent from the family of Karikala and the Kasyapa gotra.
• He had three sons Simhavishnu, Sundarananda and Dhananjaya, all of whom were ruling different territories simultaneously.
• The family seems to have had its origin in Erigal in the Tunmkur district, situated in the border between Pallava and Kadamba regions.

About the inscription

• The inscription so found was engraved on a dolomite slab and shale.
  The inscription was written in archaic Telugu which is readable in 25 lines — the first side with eleven lines and the remaining on the other side.
• It was assigned to the 8th Century A.D. when the region was under the rule of Chola Maharaja of Renadu.
• The inscription seems to throw light on the record of a gift of six Marttus (a measuring unit) of land gifted to a person Sidyamayu, one of the Brahmins serving the temple at Pidukula village.
• It says the people who safeguard this inscription for future generations will acquire the status of conducting Aswamedha Yajna and those destroying it will incur sin equivalent to causing death in Varanasi.

Indus River System

Ganga River System

• Origin → As Bhagirathi from Gangotri Glacier (Uttarkashi – Uttarakhand)
• Alakananda unites with Bhagirathi at Devprayag, Uttarakhand → Henceforth known as Ganga
• Passing through Rishikesh, it debounches in plains of Haridwar
• From Haridwar, it flows Southward to reach Allahabad where it joins the Yamuna
• Near Rajmahal Hills, it turns southeast & bifurcate at Farraka into Hoogly (Kolkata) & Padma (BD)
• At Bangladesh, Ganga merges with Brahmputra (Known as Jamuna in Bangladesh) at Goalundo Ghats
• Mixture is known as Padma River

• Then it merges with Meghna & finally falls in the Bay of Bengal
• Meghna → Known as Barack river in India 

• Major tributaries → Yamuna, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son & Punpun

Brahmaputra River System

• Origin → Chemayungdung Glacier (Kailash Range, Tibet)
• In Tibet, known as TSANG – PO
• In China, known as YARLUNG ZANBO

• Forms grand canyon in Tibet
• Turns southward near Namcha – Barwa
• Enters Arunachal Pradesh as Dihang River at Sadiya, emerging from the mountains
• Joined by Dibang river from the north & Lohit river from the south → Known as Brahamputra
• Turns at Dhubri to enter into Bangladesh
• After joining Teesta, known as Jamuna in BD
• Joins Ganga & Megna → Merges to BOB.
• Forms many river island of which Majuli is world 2^nd largest one

• Major tributaries → Dihang, Lohit, Subansiri, Teesta, Meghna (Barack in Assam), Manas 

Peninsular Rivers India – Flowing East to West

Peninsular Rivers India – Flowing West to East