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GS Paper: GS3-16.Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology

  • Yashoda AI Literacy Program

    Why in the News?

    The National Commission for Women (NCW) has launched “Yashoda AI”, an AI literacy program to empower women with skills in cybersecurity, digital privacy, and safe online practices, promoting digital inclusion across India.

    About Yashoda AI:

    • Launch: Introduced in May 2025 as an Artificial Intelligence Literacy Program for women.
    • Organisers: Joint initiative by the NCW and Future Shift Labs.
    • Objective: To train women in cybersecurity, digital privacy, and safe online practices.
    • Focus Areas: Covers AI-driven crimes, digital safety, and practical risk mitigation strategies.
    • Reach: Over 2,500 women trained to date.
    • Beneficiaries: Includes Self-Help Group members, local representatives (Sarpanchs, Pradhans, Mayors, Members of Legislative Assemblies), and frontline workers like Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA workers).

    Back2Basics: National Commission for Women

    • Status: Statutory body established in 1992 under the NCW Act, 1990.
    • Composition: Consists of a Chairperson, 5 Members, and a Member-Secretary—appointed by the Central Government.
    • Term: All members serve for a term of 3 years.
    • Powers: Holds civil court powers during inquiries:
      • Can summon individuals and enforce attendance
      • Examine witnesses under oath
      • Demand records and receive affidavits
      • Issue commissions for examination of witnesses or documents

     

    [UPSC 2017] What is the purpose of Vidyanjali Yojana’?

    1. To enable the famous foreign campuses in India.

    2. To increase the quality of education provided in government schools by taking help from the private sector and the community.

    3. To encourage voluntary monetary contributions from private individuals and organizations so as to improve the infrastructure facilities for primary and secondary schools.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 2 only * (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only

     

  • Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize

    Why in the News?

    Indian mathematician Dr. Rajula Srivastava has received the Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize for her groundbreaking work in harmonic analysis and number theory.

    About the Indian Laureate: Dr. Rajula Srivastava

    • Affiliation: Hausdorff Center for Mathematics, University of Bonn and Max Planck Institute of Mathematics, Germany.
    • Field of Work:
      • Dr. Srivastava studied how to break down complex mathematical functions into simpler parts using advanced math tools.
      • She worked on finding how close certain numbers can get to specific points on curved shapes in higher dimensions.

    About the Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize:

    • Purpose: Recognises early-career women mathematicians (within two years of PhD completion) for outstanding research contributions.
    • Named After: Maryam Mirzakhani — first woman and first Iranian to win the Fields Medal; known for her work on geometry and Riemann surfaces.
    • Objective: To honour Mirzakhani’s legacy, encourage more women in mathematics, and elevate early-career contributions.
    • Established: November 2019 by the Breakthrough Prize Foundation.
    • Prize Amount: $50,000, may be shared by multiple recipients in a year.
    • Eligibility: Women mathematicians who have:
      • Recently completed their PhD (within 2 years)
      • Shown exceptional promise and innovation in mathematical research.

    Other Important Prizes in Mathematics:

    • Fields Medal: Awarded every four years to mathematicians under 40, the Fields Medal is the most prestigious global mathematics award, established in 1936, and presented by the International Mathematical Union to recognize outstanding contributions to the field.
    • Abel Prize: Instituted by the King of Norway in 2001, the Abel Prize is an annual international award recognizing lifetime achievement in mathematics, often considered the closest equivalent to the Nobel Prize in the discipline.
    • Wolf Prize in Mathematics: Awarded annually since 1978 by the Wolf Foundation in Israel, the Wolf Prize honours exceptional achievements across all branches of mathematics and is ranked just below the Fields and Abel Prizes in prestige.
    [UPSC 2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of

    Options: (a) S. Ramanujan* (b) S. Chandhrashekhar (c) S. N. Bose (d) C. V. Raman

     

  • Blockchain-verified Quantum Randomness for Secure Communication

    Why in the News?

    A recent breakthrough demonstrated use of quantum science, blockchain, and cryptography to create truly random and secure numbers used in encryption for secure communication.

    About the Technology:

    • Encryption: Converts readable data into unreadable code using a “key”; only someone with the correct key can decrypt the message.
    • Importance of Randomness: Secure encryption depends on unpredictable keys—predictable keys can be guessed or hacked.
    • Issue with Computers: Most keys are generated using pseudo-random algorithms, which appear random but are predictable if the method is known.

    About the Breakthrough Lava Lamp Method:

    • Setup: 100 lava lamps placed on a wall at Cloudflare’s San Francisco office; a camera takes periodic photos of the moving blobs.
    • Process: Each photo is converted into numerical data, creating a random seed to generate encryption keys.
    • Why Lava Lamps? The heat-driven movement of wax blobs is unpredictable and creates unique images.
    • Limitations: Movements follow physics, so not truly random. Also, the algorithm that converts images is deterministic—reproducible if known.

    Quantum Random Number Generation Protocol:

    • Why Quantum Physics: Subatomic particles like photons behave randomly; for example, a photon’s polarization is unknown until measured.
    • How It Works: Scientists used lasers to generate entangled photons and measured them millions of times to produce random results.
    • Data Conversion: The raw data (in binary) was biased, so a randomness extractor was used to generate a clean 512-bit unbiased number using a second random seed.
    • Blockchain Role: Each step was recorded on blockchain for transparency, with digital fingerprints (hashes) to ensure data integrity.
    • Team Involvement: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), University of Colorado, and DRAND each handled separate parts to ensure decentralization and trust.
    • Public Use: The final random numbers are shared via CURBy, a public distribution service.
    • Significance: Though still emerging, this method shows strong potential for future ultra-secure encryption systems.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

     

  • Piezo- Photocatalytic Water Filter

    Why in the News?

    Indian scientists from INST Mohali, IIT-Dharwad, and IIT-Kharagpur have developed a low-cost, reusable water filter that removes toxic industrial dyes using a process called piezo-photocatalysis.

    About the Light-Induced Water Filter:

    • Material Used: Built using 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) sheets (a biodegradable plastic); Sheets coated with bismuth ferrite (BFO) nanoparticles.
    • Working: It works in two ways. Together, this is called piezo-photocatalysis.
      • Photocatalysis: Uses sunlight to break dye molecules.
      • Piezoelectric effect: Uses vibrations (ultrasound) to work even in the dark.
    • Reusable: Can be used 5 times with only 3% loss in performance.
    • Lab tests showed:
      • 99% Congo Red removal
      • 74% Methylene Blue removal (in 90 minutes)

    Significance:

    • Eco-Friendly Solution: Removes harmful dyes without harmful chemicals or electricity.
    • Cost-Effective: Cheaper and safer than ozone or chemical-intensive treatments.
    • Green Energy Use: Operates using sunlight and mechanical vibrations—no external power needed.
    • Policy Alignment: Supports Namami Gange, Jal Nigam, and Aatmanirbhar Bharat missions.
    • Scalability: Ideal for deployment near textile treatment plants as a sustainable technology.
    [UPSC 2023] With reference to the role of biofilters in the Recirculating Aquaculture System, consider the following statements:

    1. Biofilters provide waste treatment by removing uneaten fish feed

    2.Biofilters convert ammonia present in fish waste to nitrate

    3.Biofilters increase phosphorus as nutrient for fish in water

    How many of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

     

  • Quick fix: On India’s Research Development and Innovation scheme

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has recently approved a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme to encourage private companies to invest more in basic scientific research.

    What are the aims and design of the ₹1-lakh crore RDI scheme?

    • Promote Private Investment in Basic Research: The scheme aims to shift the R&D funding balance by incentivising the private sector to invest in foundational scientific research, reversing the current trend where the government contributes around 70% of total R&D spending.
    • Special Purpose Fund under ANRF: A dedicated fund will be set up within the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), which will act as a custodian of ₹1-lakh crore and offer low-interest loans to eligible research projects.
    • Single-Window Clearance Mechanism: ANRF is designed as an independent institutional body with oversight from the Ministry of Science, providing a streamlined funding mechanism for universities and research institutions.
    • Targeting Mid-Stage Innovations (TRL-4 and Above): The scheme prioritises projects at Technology Readiness Level 4 or above, focusing on research that has demonstrated lab-scale feasibility and market potential, rather than early-stage, high-risk science.

    Why is ANRF’s role in research funding considered innovative?

    • Single-Window Clearance for R&D Funding: The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) offers a unified platform to fund research across academic and industrial institutions, reducing bureaucratic delays. Eg: Instead of applying to multiple agencies like DST, DBT, and CSIR, universities can now approach ANRF for consolidated support.
    • Private Sector Integration in Basic Research: ANRF aims to source 70% of its budget from private players, incentivising corporate investment in long-term, foundational science rather than only market-ready products. Eg: Tech companies can fund AI or clean energy research at IITs through ANRF, blending commercial interest with academic innovation.
    • Bridging Academic-Industry Gaps: By acting as a funding bridge between universities, startups, and industries, ANRF fosters collaboration that accelerates the conversion of research into scalable solutions. Eg: A university developing a green hydrogen prototype can partner with a renewable energy firm under ANRFguidance and funding.

    How does the TRL-4 condition affect R&D inclusivity?

    • Excludes Early-Stage Fundamental Research: The requirement of Technology Readiness Level-4 (TRL-4) support means only projects with demonstrated application potential are eligible. This excludes TRL-1 to TRL-3 projects, which involve basic, foundational research. Eg: A university lab studying the quantum behaviour of materials may be denied funding despite its long-term potential.
    • Narrows Innovation Pipeline: Focusing only on mid-to-late stage research limits the scope for high-risk, high-reward innovation, which often begins at lower TRLs. This curbs diverse and disruptive innovations from entering the ecosystem. Eg: Internet and GPS started as risky low-TRL military projects—India might miss such breakthroughs by ignoring early research.

    What global lessons can India adopt to boost core innovation?

    • Invest in Early-Stage Research through Public Funding: Countries like the United States and Germany fund basic science heavily through institutions like the NSF and Max Planck Society, recognising that core innovation often starts at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs). Eg: The U.S. government’s early funding of ARPANET (precursor to the Internet) shows how foundational research can lead to transformative technologies.
    • Link Academia, Industry, and Government: Nations such as South Korea and Israel foster strong collaboration between universities, industries, and the state to accelerate innovation from lab to market. Eg: South Korea’s “Innovation Clusters” connect academic research with industrial application, leading to global tech giants like Samsung.

    Why does brain drain persist despite new research schemes?

    • Limited Research Infrastructure and Bureaucracy: Many Indian institutions lack state-of-the-art labs, smooth funding access, and administrative efficiency, discouraging cutting-edge work. Eg: A 2023 study by IISc found that over 40% of PhD graduates in STEM preferred postdoctoral positions abroad due to better facilities and research environments.
    • Lack of Competitive Salaries and Academic Freedom: Indian researchers often face lower salaries, rigid hierarchies, and limited autonomy compared to global peers. Eg: According to a DST report, Indian scientists earn 3–4 times less than those in OECD nations, prompting talent to settle in countries like the US and Germany.
    • Weak Industry-Academia Collaboration: Private sector investment in R&D is low, leading to few applied research opportunities or innovation ecosystems. Eg: In South Korea, over 75% of R&D is industry-funded, whereas India’s share is just around 37%, limiting prospects for applied researchers.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Research Ecosystems and Autonomy: Invest in world-class infrastructure, streamline funding mechanisms, and provide greater academic freedom to scientists and institutions to pursue innovative research without bureaucratic hurdles.
    • Enhance Industry Collaboration and Incentives: Foster stronger industry-academia linkages by offering tax benefits, matching grants, and innovation clusters to attract private R&D investment and create lucrative opportunities for researchers in India.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] What are the intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

    Linkage:  The article discusses the Union Cabinet’s approval of a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme aimed at incentivizing the private sector to invest in basic research. This PYQ directly addresses the challenge of commercialization of patents in India, a critical bottleneck in the country’s innovation ecosystem that the implicitly highlights by article.

  • [pib] SAKSHAM-3000  

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.

    What is SAKSHAM-3000?

    • Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
    • Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
    • Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
    • Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
    • Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.

    Technical Highlights and Capabilities:

    • Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
    • Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
    • Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
    • Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
    • Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
    • Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
    • Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • [pib] Indian Scientists created high-performance Supercapacitor Material

    Why in the News?

    Scientists from Bengaluru, in collaboration with Aligarh Muslim University, have developed an advanced material that significantly improves supercapacitor performance.

    What are Supercapacitors?

    • Fast-Charging Energy Devices: Supercapacitors are special tools that store and release energy very quickly, much faster than regular batteries.
    • Used in Modern Technology: They are found in phones, electric vehicles, and solar systems where fast energy delivery is needed.
    • Trade-Off in Storage: While they charge faster, they generally hold less energy than traditional batteries.
    • Ongoing Scientific Efforts: Researchers are trying to increase energy capacity without sacrificing their quick-charging abilities.

    About Lanthanum-Doped Silver Niobate:

    • New Material from Indian Scientists: A research team from Bengaluru and Aligarh Muslim University created a better material for supercapacitors.
    • Silver Niobate as Base: They used silver niobate, which is non-toxic and eco-friendly, as the base material.
    • Improved by Lanthanum Doping: They added lanthanum, a rare metal, to help enhance electrical performance — a method called doping.
    • Smaller Particles, Bigger Surface: The particles became smaller, increasing the surface area for energy storage.

    What makes this material special?

    • Better with Use: The material retained 118% of its capacity after repeated use, showing it improved over time.
    • 100% Energy Efficiency: It wasted no energy during charge or discharge, making it highly efficient.
    • Quick and Smooth Performance: It delivered energy faster and more steadily than previous materials.
    • Proven in Real-World Test: A test device using this material could power an LCD screen, proving practical use.
    • Eco-Friendly Choice: It is lead-free and safe for the environment.
    • Future Potential: Scientists hope to apply this method to other materials and scale up for commercial use in electronics, EVs, and solar tech.
    [UPSC 2022] With reference to India, consider the following statements:

    1. Monazite is a source of rare

    earths. 2. Monazite contains thorium. 3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India. 4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.

    Which of the statements given above are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • National Statistics Day

    Why in the News?

    June 29 is observed annually as National Statistics Day in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, hailed as the Father of Indian Statistics.

    About National Statistics Day:

    • Purpose: National Statistics Day is observed on June 29 each year to commemorate the birth anniversary of P.C. Mahalanobis and highlight the value of statistics in national development.
    • First Observance: It was first celebrated in 2007, following a government resolution to raise awareness about the role of statistics in socio-economic planning.
    • Objectives: It aims to emphasise the use of statistical tools in governance, policy-making, and development planning.
    • Organizers: Events are led by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) and the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI).
    • Annual Themes: Each year features a dedicated theme focusing on a statistical challenge or development goal.
    • Events and Outreach: Celebrations include seminars, exhibitions, competitions, and lectures across institutions.
    • Commemorative Status: Though not a public holiday, it is a nationally recognized observance.

    Who was P.C. Mahalanobis?

    • Background: He was born on June 29, 1893, in Kolkata, into a Brahmo Samaj family.
    • Education: He studied at Presidency College and later at King’s College, Cambridge.
    • Legacy Title: He is hailed as the Father of Modern Statistics in India and was known as “The Professor”.
    • Institution Builder: He founded the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) and helped set up India’s Planning Commission.
    • His Major Contributions:
      • National Sample Survey (NSS): Launched in 1950, it enabled the systematic collection of household data for policymaking.
      • Mahalanobis Distance: Introduced in 1936, it remains a widely used statistical tool for identifying outliers in data.
      • Applied Statistics: He applied statistical methods to flood control in Bengal and Odisha, offering cost-effective solutions.
      • Planning Vision: Mahalanobis played a key role in drafting the Second Five-Year Plan, focusing on industrialisation and state-led growth.
      • Academic Promotion: He started the journal Sankhya, modeled on Biometrika, to foster statistical research in India.
      • Infrastructure Vision: His early proposal led to the Hirakud Dam project, completed in 1957.
      • Balanced Approach: Though viewed as pro-Soviet during the Cold War, he was admired for his intellectual integrity.
    [UPSC 2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of:

    (a) S. Ramanujan (b) S. Chandhrashekhar (c) S. N. Bose (d) C. V. Raman

     

  • [pib] Researchers validate Optical Properties of Teak Leaf Extracts

    Why in the News?

    In a breakthrough, scientists at the Raman Research Institute (RRI) have found that teak leaf extract (Tectona grandis) could offer a natural, sustainable solution for laser protection.

    About Optical Properties of Teak Leaf:

    • Natural Composition: Teak leaves (Tectona grandis) contain natural compounds that can interact with strong laser light.
    • Laser Blocking Ability: These compounds can block harmful laser rays while allowing normal light to pass, making them suitable for selective light filtering.
    • Nonlinear Optics: This unique behaviour is called a nonlinear optical property, where a material responds differently to high-intensity light.
    • Linear vs Nonlinear: In linear optics, the material’s response is directly proportional to the light’s intensity. In nonlinear optics, the response becomes non-proportional, especially under laser exposure.

    Back2Basics: Teak as Timber in India

    • Teak (Tectona grandis) is a large deciduous hardwood tree native to India and Southeast Asia, mainly found in tropical dry and moist deciduous forests.
    • It is highly valued for its durable, strong, and water- and pest-resistant wood, making it the “King of Timbers”.
    • India manages 35% of the world’s planted teak forests, with major natural habitats in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
    • Teak is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List but is not under CITES; private plantations are crucial for meeting demand due to restrictions on commercial felling in government forests.
    • Green felling is prohibited in government forests under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, and National Forest Policy, 1988, with timber supply to be met mainly from dead/diseased trees or private plantations.

    Recent Breakthrough:

    • New Discovery: Scientists discovered that teak leaf extract can function as a natural laser shield.
    • Protection Potential: The extract can block high-intensity laser beams, offering protection to human eyes and sensitive optical devices.
    • First of Its Kind: This marks the first known instance of a natural material exhibiting such laser-blocking properties.

    Significance for Humans:

    • Practical Applications: It can be used in laser safety goggles, optical sensors, and other light-sensitive technologies.
    • Safe Alternative: It offers a non-toxic, eco-friendly substitute to chemical-based laser protection materials.
    • Sustainability Impact: The use of plant-based materials supports cost reduction and promotes sustainable innovation in science and optics.
    [UPSC 2015] In India, in which one of the following types of forests is teak a dominant tree species?

    Options: (a) Tropical moist deciduous forest* (b) Tropical rain forest (c) Tropical thorn scrub forest (d) Temperate Forest with grasslands

     

  • What is Axiom-4 Mission?

    Why in the News?

    The launch of Axiom-4 (Ax-4), a private mission to the International Space Station (ISS), has finally lifted-off after several postponements due to weather conditions.

    About Axiom-4 Mission:

    • Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private spaceflight organized by Axiom Space.
    • It aims to transport a crew to the International Space Station (ISS) for a 14-day mission.
    • This will be Axiom Space’s 4th mission to the ISS, following their previous missions (Ax-1, Ax-2, and Ax-3).
    • The mission will launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida using SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket.
    • The spacecraft for this mission is a SpaceX Crew Dragon, known for its advanced technology and safety features.
    • This mission is organised in collaboration with NASA, highlighting a strong partnership between private space companies and government space agencies to further space exploration and research.
    • Crew:
      1. Peggy Whitson: A veteran astronaut with extensive experience, having completed multiple missions to the ISS.
      2. Sławosz Uznanski: A Polish astronaut joining the mission, marking a significant milestone for Poland in space exploration.
      3. Tibor Kapu: A Hungarian astronaut, adding to the diversity of the mission crew.
      4. Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla: An Indian astronaut, making headlines as part of this international crew.

    Significance of Ax-4 Mission for India

    • The mission is a collaborative effort resulting from an agreement between ISRO and NASA.
    • It provides ISRO with an early opportunity to test experiments in space, originally planned for Gaganyaan.
    • Key Indian Experiments on Axiom-4:
      • Microgravity’s impact on muscle dysfunction.
      • Use of computer screens in zero gravity and their effects on human cognition and vision.
      • Growth of six varieties of crop seeds in space conditions.
      • Tardigrade survival study—these microscopic creatures can endure extreme environments and may provide insight into life support systems in space.

    Back2Basics: International Space Station (ISS)

    • The ISS, orbiting 430 kilometres above Earth, completes 16 orbits daily, witnessing 16 sunrises and sunsets.
    • It orbits Earth every 90 minutes at 8 km per second.
    • Spanning 109 meters, it’s almost as long as an American football field.
    • It includes 6 sleeping areas, 2 bathrooms, a gym, and a panoramic view bay window.
    • Its solar array wingspan is 109 meters, and the station houses about 13 km of electrical wiring.
    • Its journey began on November 20, 1998, with Russia’s Zarya Control Module.
    • The US added the Unity Node 1 module on December 4, 1998, marking the start of a functional space lab.
    • It evolved into its current form after 42 assembly flights.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?