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GS Paper: GS3-16.Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology

  • [pib] SAKSHAM-3000  

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.

    What is SAKSHAM-3000?

    • Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
    • Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
    • Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
    • Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
    • Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.

    Technical Highlights and Capabilities:

    • Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
    • Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
    • Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
    • Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
    • Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
    • Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
    • Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • [pib] Indian Scientists created high-performance Supercapacitor Material

    Why in the News?

    Scientists from Bengaluru, in collaboration with Aligarh Muslim University, have developed an advanced material that significantly improves supercapacitor performance.

    What are Supercapacitors?

    • Fast-Charging Energy Devices: Supercapacitors are special tools that store and release energy very quickly, much faster than regular batteries.
    • Used in Modern Technology: They are found in phones, electric vehicles, and solar systems where fast energy delivery is needed.
    • Trade-Off in Storage: While they charge faster, they generally hold less energy than traditional batteries.
    • Ongoing Scientific Efforts: Researchers are trying to increase energy capacity without sacrificing their quick-charging abilities.

    About Lanthanum-Doped Silver Niobate:

    • New Material from Indian Scientists: A research team from Bengaluru and Aligarh Muslim University created a better material for supercapacitors.
    • Silver Niobate as Base: They used silver niobate, which is non-toxic and eco-friendly, as the base material.
    • Improved by Lanthanum Doping: They added lanthanum, a rare metal, to help enhance electrical performance — a method called doping.
    • Smaller Particles, Bigger Surface: The particles became smaller, increasing the surface area for energy storage.

    What makes this material special?

    • Better with Use: The material retained 118% of its capacity after repeated use, showing it improved over time.
    • 100% Energy Efficiency: It wasted no energy during charge or discharge, making it highly efficient.
    • Quick and Smooth Performance: It delivered energy faster and more steadily than previous materials.
    • Proven in Real-World Test: A test device using this material could power an LCD screen, proving practical use.
    • Eco-Friendly Choice: It is lead-free and safe for the environment.
    • Future Potential: Scientists hope to apply this method to other materials and scale up for commercial use in electronics, EVs, and solar tech.
    [UPSC 2022] With reference to India, consider the following statements:

    1. Monazite is a source of rare

    earths. 2. Monazite contains thorium. 3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India. 4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.

    Which of the statements given above are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • National Statistics Day

    Why in the News?

    June 29 is observed annually as National Statistics Day in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, hailed as the Father of Indian Statistics.

    About National Statistics Day:

    • Purpose: National Statistics Day is observed on June 29 each year to commemorate the birth anniversary of P.C. Mahalanobis and highlight the value of statistics in national development.
    • First Observance: It was first celebrated in 2007, following a government resolution to raise awareness about the role of statistics in socio-economic planning.
    • Objectives: It aims to emphasise the use of statistical tools in governance, policy-making, and development planning.
    • Organizers: Events are led by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) and the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI).
    • Annual Themes: Each year features a dedicated theme focusing on a statistical challenge or development goal.
    • Events and Outreach: Celebrations include seminars, exhibitions, competitions, and lectures across institutions.
    • Commemorative Status: Though not a public holiday, it is a nationally recognized observance.

    Who was P.C. Mahalanobis?

    • Background: He was born on June 29, 1893, in Kolkata, into a Brahmo Samaj family.
    • Education: He studied at Presidency College and later at King’s College, Cambridge.
    • Legacy Title: He is hailed as the Father of Modern Statistics in India and was known as “The Professor”.
    • Institution Builder: He founded the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) and helped set up India’s Planning Commission.
    • His Major Contributions:
      • National Sample Survey (NSS): Launched in 1950, it enabled the systematic collection of household data for policymaking.
      • Mahalanobis Distance: Introduced in 1936, it remains a widely used statistical tool for identifying outliers in data.
      • Applied Statistics: He applied statistical methods to flood control in Bengal and Odisha, offering cost-effective solutions.
      • Planning Vision: Mahalanobis played a key role in drafting the Second Five-Year Plan, focusing on industrialisation and state-led growth.
      • Academic Promotion: He started the journal Sankhya, modeled on Biometrika, to foster statistical research in India.
      • Infrastructure Vision: His early proposal led to the Hirakud Dam project, completed in 1957.
      • Balanced Approach: Though viewed as pro-Soviet during the Cold War, he was admired for his intellectual integrity.
    [UPSC 2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of:

    (a) S. Ramanujan (b) S. Chandhrashekhar (c) S. N. Bose (d) C. V. Raman

     

  • [pib] Researchers validate Optical Properties of Teak Leaf Extracts

    Why in the News?

    In a breakthrough, scientists at the Raman Research Institute (RRI) have found that teak leaf extract (Tectona grandis) could offer a natural, sustainable solution for laser protection.

    About Optical Properties of Teak Leaf:

    • Natural Composition: Teak leaves (Tectona grandis) contain natural compounds that can interact with strong laser light.
    • Laser Blocking Ability: These compounds can block harmful laser rays while allowing normal light to pass, making them suitable for selective light filtering.
    • Nonlinear Optics: This unique behaviour is called a nonlinear optical property, where a material responds differently to high-intensity light.
    • Linear vs Nonlinear: In linear optics, the material’s response is directly proportional to the light’s intensity. In nonlinear optics, the response becomes non-proportional, especially under laser exposure.

    Back2Basics: Teak as Timber in India

    • Teak (Tectona grandis) is a large deciduous hardwood tree native to India and Southeast Asia, mainly found in tropical dry and moist deciduous forests.
    • It is highly valued for its durable, strong, and water- and pest-resistant wood, making it the “King of Timbers”.
    • India manages 35% of the world’s planted teak forests, with major natural habitats in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
    • Teak is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List but is not under CITES; private plantations are crucial for meeting demand due to restrictions on commercial felling in government forests.
    • Green felling is prohibited in government forests under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, and National Forest Policy, 1988, with timber supply to be met mainly from dead/diseased trees or private plantations.

    Recent Breakthrough:

    • New Discovery: Scientists discovered that teak leaf extract can function as a natural laser shield.
    • Protection Potential: The extract can block high-intensity laser beams, offering protection to human eyes and sensitive optical devices.
    • First of Its Kind: This marks the first known instance of a natural material exhibiting such laser-blocking properties.

    Significance for Humans:

    • Practical Applications: It can be used in laser safety goggles, optical sensors, and other light-sensitive technologies.
    • Safe Alternative: It offers a non-toxic, eco-friendly substitute to chemical-based laser protection materials.
    • Sustainability Impact: The use of plant-based materials supports cost reduction and promotes sustainable innovation in science and optics.
    [UPSC 2015] In India, in which one of the following types of forests is teak a dominant tree species?

    Options: (a) Tropical moist deciduous forest* (b) Tropical rain forest (c) Tropical thorn scrub forest (d) Temperate Forest with grasslands

     

  • What is Axiom-4 Mission?

    Why in the News?

    The launch of Axiom-4 (Ax-4), a private mission to the International Space Station (ISS), has finally lifted-off after several postponements due to weather conditions.

    About Axiom-4 Mission:

    • Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private spaceflight organized by Axiom Space.
    • It aims to transport a crew to the International Space Station (ISS) for a 14-day mission.
    • This will be Axiom Space’s 4th mission to the ISS, following their previous missions (Ax-1, Ax-2, and Ax-3).
    • The mission will launch from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida using SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket.
    • The spacecraft for this mission is a SpaceX Crew Dragon, known for its advanced technology and safety features.
    • This mission is organised in collaboration with NASA, highlighting a strong partnership between private space companies and government space agencies to further space exploration and research.
    • Crew:
      1. Peggy Whitson: A veteran astronaut with extensive experience, having completed multiple missions to the ISS.
      2. Sławosz Uznanski: A Polish astronaut joining the mission, marking a significant milestone for Poland in space exploration.
      3. Tibor Kapu: A Hungarian astronaut, adding to the diversity of the mission crew.
      4. Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla: An Indian astronaut, making headlines as part of this international crew.

    Significance of Ax-4 Mission for India

    • The mission is a collaborative effort resulting from an agreement between ISRO and NASA.
    • It provides ISRO with an early opportunity to test experiments in space, originally planned for Gaganyaan.
    • Key Indian Experiments on Axiom-4:
      • Microgravity’s impact on muscle dysfunction.
      • Use of computer screens in zero gravity and their effects on human cognition and vision.
      • Growth of six varieties of crop seeds in space conditions.
      • Tardigrade survival study—these microscopic creatures can endure extreme environments and may provide insight into life support systems in space.

    Back2Basics: International Space Station (ISS)

    • The ISS, orbiting 430 kilometres above Earth, completes 16 orbits daily, witnessing 16 sunrises and sunsets.
    • It orbits Earth every 90 minutes at 8 km per second.
    • Spanning 109 meters, it’s almost as long as an American football field.
    • It includes 6 sleeping areas, 2 bathrooms, a gym, and a panoramic view bay window.
    • Its solar array wingspan is 109 meters, and the station houses about 13 km of electrical wiring.
    • Its journey began on November 20, 1998, with Russia’s Zarya Control Module.
    • The US added the Unity Node 1 module on December 4, 1998, marking the start of a functional space lab.
    • It evolved into its current form after 42 assembly flights.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?

  • IIT-D demonstrates Quantum Communication over 1 Km

    Why in the News?

    The Defence Ministry announced a breakthrough as IIT-Delhi and DRDO scientists successfully demonstrated quantum communication over 1 km in free space.

    What is Quantum Communication?

    • It is a new way of sending messages so safely that no one can secretly listen in.
    • It uses the laws of quantum physics, especially something called quantum entanglement, to make sure that if someone tries to spy on your message, you’ll know immediately.
    • In quantum entanglement, two tiny particles (like photons of light) are connected in a mysterious way—whatever happens to one instantly affects the other, even if they’re far apart.
    • Because of this, if someone tries to distort one particle, it changes, and the system knows the message isn’t safe anymore.
    • This makes quantum communication perfect for defence, banking, and sensitive messages that must stay secret.

    Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) – Explained Simply:

    • Imagine you want to lock a box and send it to your friend, but you also want them to have the key—without anyone else being able to copy it.
    • QKD is a special way to share that key safely, using quantum particles instead of metal keys.
    • Two people use entangled particles to create the same secret key, without anyone else knowing it.
    • If someone tries to intercept the key while it’s being shared, the particles will show signs of disturbance, and the system will know to discard it and try again.
    • Once both people have the same key, they can use it to lock and unlock messages using regular encryption tools.
    • QKD doesn’t send the actual message—it just safely shares the key that keeps messages secret.

    What did the IIT-Delhi team achieve?

    • A team led by IIT-Delhi, in collaboration with DRDO, successfully demonstrated entanglement-based quantum communication over 1 km in free space.
    • This was done within the IIT-Delhi campus and marks a key advancement from previous experiments using only optical fibre.
    • The demonstration achieved a secure key rate of 240 bits per second and maintained a quantum bit error rate (QBER) of under 7%, which is considered acceptable for real-world QKD.
    • This capability is a step toward achieving satellite-to-ground quantum communication, enabling encrypted keys to be distributed across vast regions without physical links.

    India’s Quantum Communication Journey So Far:

    • In 2022, Prof. Kanseri’s team first demonstrated quantum communication between Vindhyachal and Prayagraj.
    • In 2023, they expanded this capability to 380 km using standard telecom fibre, achieving a low QBER of 1.48%.
    • By 2024, the team established a QKD link spanning over 100 km of optical fibre, further pushing the reliability and reach of India’s quantum infrastructure.
    • These achievements are part of India’s larger effort under the National Quantum Mission (2023–2031), which has a budget of ₹6,000 crore to support R&D and deployment in quantum computing, sensing, and communication.
    • India now joins an elite group of nations—alongside China and the US—actively building toward a quantum-secure internet, with potential applications in defence, finance, telecom, and cybersecurity.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

     

  • Rare Proton Emission in Astatine Isotope

    Why in the News?

    In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.

    What is Proton Emission?  

    • Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
    • Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
    • Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
    • Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
    • Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
    • Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.

    Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:

    • What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
    • Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
    • Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
    • Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
    • Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.

    Significance of the Discovery:

    • Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
    • Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
    • Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
    • Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.
    [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:

    1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • JNCASR develops Fast-Charging Sodium-Ion Battery

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru have developed a super-fast charging Sodium-ion battery.

    About Sodium-Ion Battery and Its Working:

    • What it is: Sodium-ion batteries are rechargeable batteries that use sodium (Na⁺) ions to carry electric charge, instead of lithium.
    • How it works: During charging and discharging, sodium ions move between the anode (negative) and cathode (positive) — similar to how lithium-ion batteries function.
    • Innovation: A sodium-ion battery developed by JNCASR uses NASICON-type chemistry, a special material structure that ensures fast ion movement and stability.
    • Performance Boost: The team used nano-particles, added a carbon coating, and used aluminium doping to improve charging speed and battery life.
    • Fast Charging & Long Life: The battery can charge up to 80% in 6 minutes and last over 3,000 charge-discharge cycles.
    • Tested for Safety: The battery passed tests using electrochemical cycling and quantum simulations, proving it is safe and durable.

    Advantages over Lithium-Ion Batteries:

    • Sodium is abundant and cheaper than lithium, and it can be extracted from seawater.
    • Sodium-ion batteries are safer, as they can be transported at zero voltage and used in high temperatures without risk of fire.
    • They are more eco-friendly, with less environmental damage during extraction compared to lithium.
    • Material costs are lower because they use aluminium instead of copper.
    • India can reduce its dependence on China, which controls much of the lithium battery supply chain.
    • These batteries are ideal for renewable energy applications, such as solar grids, electric vehicles, drones, and rural electrification in extreme climates.
    [UPSC 2025] In the context of electric vehicles, consider the following elements:

    I. Cobalt II. Graphite III. Lithium IV. Nickel

    How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three * (d) All the four

     

  • Bharat Forecast System for Panchayat-Level Weather Forecasting

    Why in the News?

    The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has unveiled the Bharat Forecast System (BFS) for weather predictions at panchayat level.

    About Bharat Forecast System (BFS)

    • Launch: The BFS was launched by IMD and developed by IITM Pune under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
    • Forecast Accuracy: It delivers hyperlocal weather predictions at the panchayat level, using a 6 km × 6 km grid — the highest resolution in the world.
    • Supercomputing Power: The system runs on two advanced supercomputers: Arka at IITM Pune and Arunika at NCMRWF Delhi.
    • Purpose: BFS enhances short- and medium-term forecasts critical for agriculture, disaster preparedness, and public safety.

    Key Features of BFS:

    • High-Resolution Forecasting: It provides 6 km resolution forecasts, improving on the earlier 12 km resolution. It covers the tropical region between 30° South and 30° North latitude.
    • Advanced Supercomputing: Arka- 11.77 petaflops, 33 petabytes; Arunika- 8.24 petaflops, 24 petabytes; Arka reduces forecast processing time from 10 hours to 4 hours; Includes a dedicated AI system with 1.9 petaflops power.
    • Real-Time Nowcasting: Uses data from 40 Doppler Weather Radars (set to grow to 100); Provides real-time forecasts for the next 2 hours with high accuracy.
    • Smart Grid Design: Uses a Triangular-Cubic Octahedral (TCO) grid, focusing computing power on weather-sensitive regions.
    • Practical Benefits: Helps forecast heavy rainfall, improve crop planning, manage flood risk, and guide resource allocation.
    • Global Benchmark: Most global models operate at 9–14 km resolution; India is now the only country with 6 km operational weather forecasts.
    [UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

    2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Hoyle–Narlikar Theory of Gravity

    Why in the News?

    Jayant Narlikar, renowned Indian astrophysicist and Padma Vibhushan awardee, who co-developed the Hoyle–Narlikar Theory to refine Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, passed away in Pune at the age of 87.

    About Jayant Narlikar and His Contributions:

    • Early Life: Born in 1938 in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, and pursued a PhD at Cambridge University under Fred Hoyle.
    • Scientific Influence: Hoyle had earlier developed the steady-state theory with Bondi and Gold and coined the term “Big Bang” sarcastically in 1948.
    • Narlikar’s Belief: He argued that the universe always looks the same, as new matter fills the gaps created by expansion.
    • Critique of Big Bang: He believed the Big Bang theory includes unproven assumptions, especially about the sudden origin of all matter and energy.
    • Enduring Work: Despite steady-state theory’s decline, Narlikar’s contributions remain respected for their scientific depth and originality.

    What Is the Hoyle–Narlikar Theory?

    Fred Hoyle and Jayant Narlikar developed a theory to answer one of the most basic questions: Why do things have mass, and how are they connected to the rest of the universe?

    • Based on Mach’s Principle: They believed your mass isn’t just something you have on your own. Instead, it depends on your connection to everything else in the universe. That means even faraway stars and galaxies play a role in what you weigh.
    • Inertia Explained: In simple terms, when you feel resistance while trying to move (inertia), it’s because of the gravitational pull of all the matter in the universe acting on you at once.
    • Mass is Relative: Earth, the Sun, or even you don’t have a fixed mass. That mass is influenced by everything else that exists out there, no matter how far away it is.
    • C-field and Steady-State Model
      • New Idea – C-Field: They introduced the “creation field”, which creates new matter in space.
      • Universe Without a Start: Their steady-state theory says the universe has no beginning or end, is always expanding, and keeps its density constant.
      • Against the Big Bang: They believed the Big Bang couldn’t explain everything we see today.
      • Hydrogen Creation: They said hydrogen atoms form in space to fill in the gaps as the universe grows.
    • Issues with the Theory:
      • CMB Discovery (1965): Scientists found cosmic microwave background radiation, strong proof of the Big Bang.
      • Other Evidence: Later discoveries like young, chaotic galaxies and studies by Hawking and Penrose supported the Big Bang.
      • Current View: The Big Bang theory became more accepted, but Hoyle and Narlikar’s ideas are still respected for their scientific value.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following phenomena:

    1. Light is affected by gravity.

    2. The Universe is constantly expanding.

    3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

    Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*