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GS Paper: GS3-16.Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology

  • IISc’s Bacteria-Based Technique for Lunar Habitat Construction

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.

    About the Bacterial Brick:

    • The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
    • It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
    • How is it made?
      • The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
      • The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
      • The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.

    Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:

    • The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
    • A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
      • When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
    • This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
      • It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
    [UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?

    1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.

    2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.

    3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • ISRO undocks SpaDex Satellites in First Attempt

    Why in the News?

    India achieved a major milestone in space docking technology with the successful undocking of satellites under the SpaDeX mission, marking ISRO’s first-ever undocking operation on March 14, 2025, just two months after the initial docking.

    With this success, India joins an elite group of nations—the U.S., Russia, and China—that have demonstrated space docking and undocking capabilities.

    What is PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission?

    • The PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission is a landmark mission aimed at demonstrating in-space docking and undocking technology.
    • This mission would position India as the fourth country in the world to master space docking, following the US, Russia, and China.
    • Objective:
      • To demonstrate the docking, undocking, and rendezvous capabilities of two satellites in low-Earth orbit (LEO).
      • Facilitate power transfer between docked spacecraft, an essential capability for future space missions.
    • Satellites: (Each weighing 220kg.)
      • SDX01 (Chaser): Equipped with a High-Resolution Camera (HRC).
      • SDX02 (Target): Carries a Miniature Multispectral Payload (MMX) and a Radiation Monitor (RadMon).
    • Configuration:
      • The satellites will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C60) in a core-alone (CA) configuration, meaning without strap-on boosters.
      • They will be placed in a 476-km circular orbit with an inclination of 55°.
    • Post-Docking:
      • After the docking demonstration, the satellites will continue standalone missions for two years, conducting imaging, natural resource monitoring, and radiation environment studies.
    • Significance: It is a strategic step towards several ambitious space objectives, including:
      • Preparing for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight program
      • Enabling Chandrayaan-4 lunar sample return missions
      • Developing the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), India’s proposed space station35

    What is Space Docking?

    • Space docking refers to the process where two spacecraft in orbit rendezvous and physically connect to form a single entity. It is a highly complex and precise maneuver essential for advanced space missions.
    • Key Steps of Space Docking:
    1. Rendezvous: Involves bringing two spacecraft into the same orbit with minimal distance and velocity difference.
    2. Docking: Establishing a mechanical connection between the spacecraft using specialized docking systems.
    3. Power and Resource Sharing: Once docked, the spacecraft can transfer power, fuel, or crew to support joint operations.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to-

    Options:

    (a) Voyager-2  (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA

     

  • National Science Day

    Why in the News?

    February 28 is observed as National Science Day in India to commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman in 1928. It is the only Nobel achieved by an Indian while working in India.

    About National Science Day

    • National Science Day is celebrated in India on February 28 every year.
    • It marks the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman on February 28, 1928.
    • The GoI declared this day as National Science Day in 1986 to promote scientific awareness.
    • The primary objective of the day is to promote scientific temper, encourage research, and recognize India’s contributions to science.
    • Schools, colleges, and research institutions organize seminars, science exhibitions, and debates to celebrate this day.
    • The theme for National Science Day 2024 is “Empowering Indian Youth for Global Leadership in Science & Innovation for Viksit Bharat.”

    Who was C.V. Raman?

    • Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was an Indian physicist born on November 7, 1888, in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.
    • He completed his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Physics from Presidency College, Madras.
    • He initially worked as an Assistant Accountant General but continued his passion for physics through research.
    • In 1917, he became a professor at Calcutta University and conducted groundbreaking experiments.
    • He established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore in 1948, which became a major center for scientific research.

    Contributions of C.V. Raman

    • Raman Effect (1928): Proved that light changes wavelength when scattered by molecules.
      • Inspired by the blue color of the Mediterranean Sea, disproving the earlier sky-reflection theory.
    • Won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930, becoming India’s first Nobel laureate in science.
    • Conducted research on vibrations of musical instruments like the veena, tabla, and mridangam.
    • Raman Spectroscopy is widely used in chemistry, physics, medicine, and space exploration.
      • Used by NASA in Mars Rover missions for mineral analysis.
    • He established the Raman Research Institute to promote advanced scientific research in India.
    • He contributed to strengthening India’s scientific infrastructure and mentored future physicists.

    PYQ:

    [2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of:

    (a) S. Ramanujan

    (b) S. Chandrasekhar

    (c) S. N. Bose

    (d) C. V. Raman

     

  • PUNCH Mission

    Why in the News?

    NASA is set to launch the Polarimetry to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission on February 28, 2025, aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.

    About the PUNCH Mission

    • PUNCH Mission is a groundbreaking solar mission designed to study the Sun’s corona and solar wind using advanced imaging techniques.
    • It will consist of 4 small satellites operating in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) for an expected two-year mission.
    • Unlike previous missions, PUNCH will use polarimetry (measurement of polarized light) to observe solar phenomena in 3D.
    • It allows scientists to study the origin and evolution of solar winds and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), both of which impact space weather and Earth’s technological systems.
    • Focus Areas of the PUNCH Mission:
      • Study how the Sun’s outer corona transforms into the solar wind.
      • Observe how CMEs are formed, gain speed, and travel through space.
      • Improve space weather forecasting to protect satellites, astronauts, and power grids.
      • Provide real-time data to help scientists predict solar storms and geomagnetic disturbances.
      • Contribute to NASA’s Artemis program by ensuring safe deep-space exploration.

    Key Features of the PUNCH Mission:

    • 4 microsatellite weighs 64 kg each and works together to capture a wide-field view of the Sun’s corona.
    • Advanced Imaging Instruments:
      • Narrow Field Imager (NFI):  Captures high-resolution images of the inner corona.
      • Wide Field Imagers (WFIs):  Observe solar wind and CMEs across interplanetary space.
      • STEAM (X-ray spectrometer): Monitors coronal heating and solar flares.
    • Provides real-time data every four minutes.
    • Offers a 90° field of view, covering the Sun’s outer atmosphere and heliosphere.
    • Helps mitigate the effects of solar storms on Earth’s communication systems.
    • Aids in protecting astronauts and satellites from harmful solar radiation.

    PYQ:

    [2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

    1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
    2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
    3. Power grids could be damaged.
    4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
    5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
    6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
    7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
    (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
    (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

  • SPHEREx Telescope

    Why in the News?

    NASA is set to launch its latest space telescope, SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from California.

    What is the SPHEREx Telescope?

    • SPHEREx is a new space telescope developed by NASA.
    • It is designed to map the entire sky in infrared light and provide insights into the origins of the universe, galaxy formation, and the distribution of life-forming molecules.
    • Its mission is expected to last 2 years, during which it will survey the sky 4 times.
    • Key Features of SPHEREx:
      • Infrared Spectroscopy: Unlike traditional optical telescopes, SPHEREx will capture the universe in 102 infrared colors, which are invisible to the human eye.
      • Wide-Sky Coverage: Unlike the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which focuses on narrow regions, SPHEREx will map the entire sky every 6 months.
      • High Data Output: It will collect data on one billion galaxies, 100 million stars, and 10,000 asteroids, creating an unprecedented cosmic map.
      • Study of Cosmic Inflation: SPHEREx will analyze the earliest moments after the Big Bang, helping scientists understand how the universe expanded rapidly in its infancy.
      • Search for Life-Forming Molecules: The telescope will identify biogenic molecules like water, carbon dioxide, and methanol in the Milky Way galaxy, revealing where the building blocks of life exist.

    SPHEREx Telescope

    How will SPHEREx Create the “Most Colourful” Map of the Cosmos?

    • Spectroscopic Imaging: SPHEREx will divide light from celestial objects into 96 infrared bands, significantly more than previous sky-mapping telescopes.
    • Mapping Galactic Evolution: By observing 450 million galaxies, SPHEREx will reveal how they evolved over cosmic history.
    • Identifying Cosmic Ice: The telescope will detect frozen water and organic molecules in interstellar dust clouds, essential for understanding planetary formation.
    • Unprecedented Infrared Insights: Unlike Hubble, which focuses on optical light, and JWST, which targets deep-space infrared observations, SPHEREx will capture broad infrared spectra across the entire sky, revealing hidden cosmic structures.

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
    2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter.
    3. It is buried deep in the ice.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • First Detailed Map of Moon’s South Pole Area made from Chandrayaan Data

    Why in the News?

    Astronomers are studying the first detailed geological map of the Moon’s South Pole, created by India’s Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander, which landed on August 23, 2023.

    About the Geological Map of the Moon’s South Pole:

    • First High-Resolution Map:
      • This map is created by PRL Ahmedabad, Panjab University, and ISRO, using data from Chandrayaan-3’s Pragyan rover.
      • It offers new insights into the Moon’s formation and evolution.
    • Confirmation of a Magma Ocean:
      • Pragyan’s Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer detected molten rock beneath the surface.
      • This confirms a global magma ocean in the Moon’s early history.
    • Age and Crater Mapping:
      • Landing site estimated to be 3.7 billion years old, similar to Earth’s early evolution.
      • Schomberger Crater identified as the primary source of impact debris.
    • Importance for Lunar and Planetary Studies:
      • Preserved craters help understand the history of asteroid impacts.
      • Provides insights into the formation of the Earth-Moon system.

    Why is the Moon’s South Pole a Key Focus for Space Missions?

    • Water Ice Reserves:
      • Permanently shadowed craters hold large water ice deposits, first confirmed by Chandrayaan-1 (2009).
      • Crucial for future lunar colonies and deep-space missions.
    • Harsh but Valuable Environment:
      • Extreme cold (as low as -250°C) preserves ancient materials.
      • Continuous sunlight in some areas makes it ideal for solar power.
    • Scientific and Strategic Importance:
      • Craters contain pristine material from the early Solar System.
      • NASA, China, and Russia plan permanent research bases in the region.

  • PARAS-2 Spectrograph

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at PRL, Ahmedabad, discovered the exoplanet TOI-6038A b, a dense sub-Saturn-sized planet with a mass of 78.5 Earth masses and a radius of 6.41 Earth radii, using the PARAS-2 spectrograph at Mount Abu Observatory.

    About TOI-6038A b

    • TOI-6038A b is a dense sub-Saturn-sized planet with a mass of 78.5 Earth masses and a radius of 6.41 Earth radii, orbiting a bright, metal-rich F-type star every 5.83 days in a circular orbit.
    • This is the 2nd exoplanet discovery using the PARAS-2 spectrograph.
    • It is also the 5th exoplanet detection combining efforts of PARAS-1 and PARAS-2, showcasing India’s growing expertise in astronomical instrumentation.

    About PARAS-2 Spectrograph:

    • PARAS-2 (PRL Advanced Radial-velocity All-sky Search-2) is a state-of-the-art high-resolution spectrograph designed for exoplanet detection.
    • The development of PARAS-2 began in mid-2018 and was successfully installed at the telescope site in mid-2022.
    • It is the highest-resolution stabilized radial velocity (RV) spectrograph in Asia, operating at a precision level of 30 cm/s.
    • It is installed at PRL’s 2.5-meter telescope at the Mount Abu Observatory, benefiting from high-altitude, clear sky conditions.
    • Key Features of PARAS-2:
      • Operates in the 380-690 nm waveband, making it suitable for studying a wide range of celestial objects.
      • Resolution of ~107,000, the highest in Asia, enabling ultra-precise exoplanetary studies.
      • Ultra-stable temperature and pressure environment: Maintained at 24 ± 0.001 °C and 0.005 ± 0.0005 mbar, ensuring minimal instrumental drift.
      • Uses a Uranium Argon Hollow Cathode Lamp (UAr HCL) for calibration, achieving a velocity precision of better than 2 m/s.
      • Advanced optical fiber system for capturing stellar light and spectral calibration data simultaneously.
    • It uses the radial velocity method, which detects tiny wobbles in a star’s motion caused by the gravitational pull of an orbiting planet.
    • These wobbles cause shifts in the star’s light spectrum, allowing scientists to determine a planet’s presence, mass, and orbital period.
    • It can detect minute stellar movements, making it ideal for finding low-mass exoplanets like super-Earths.

    PYQ:

    [2015] The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen in the news in the context of:

    (a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth
    (b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available
    (c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
    (d) search for meteorites containing precious metals

     

  • Diagnostic sector requires Regulations

    Why in the News?

    India has around 3,00,000 diagnostic labs, and the number is increasing. However, the sector is largely unregulated, scattered, and concentrated in urban areas.

    What is the significance of India’s Diagnostics Sector?

    • Market Size and Growth: The Indian diagnostics market was valued at approximately US$13 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach US$25 billion by FY28. It is expected to grow at a CAGR of around 14%. Some projections estimate the market could reach US$40 billion by 2034.
    • Essential Component of Healthcare: Diagnostics play a crucial role in disease prevention, early detection, and effective management, making them an essential part of modern healthcare. Doctor recommendations drive a major part of the diagnostic business, with tests being conducted for most patients before prescribing medication.
    • Key Market Segments: The sector is primarily divided into pathology (60%) and radiology (40%). Pathology is further broken down into illness (acute and chronic) and wellness segments.
    • Drivers of Growth: Several factors contribute to the sector’s growth, including increasing life expectancy, a growing middle class, higher penetration of government insurance schemes, rising income levels, and increasing awareness of preventive testing. An aging population and the rise in chronic diseases also fuel the demand for diagnostic services.

    What are the challenges faced by the Diagnostics Sector?

    • Urban-Rural Divide: A significant portion of diagnostics revenue (76%) comes from urban areas, even though 70% of India’s population resides in rural areas.
    • Disparities in Infrastructure: Rural areas have fewer healthcare facilities, with only about 36.5% of the total hospital beds, leading to delayed treatments and poorer health outcomes
    • Regulatory Issues: The Kerala State Clinical Establishments Act faces resistance due to stringent space (300 sq. ft. in rural areas, 500-700 sq. ft. in urban areas) and educational requirements, making compliance unviable for many small labs.
    • Standardization Needs: Lack of uniform testing protocols leads to errors. Example: A government lab in Karnataka reported a platelet count of 0.47 lakh/cmm, but a private lab retest showed 2.2 lakh/cmm, highlighting the need for mandatory NABL accreditation and standard SOPs to ensure diagnostic accuracy.
    • Infrastructure Gaps in Public Sector: Lack of essential upgrades in government labs (e.g., Osmania and Gandhi Hospitals in Hyderabad). Limited operational hours and unavailability of specialists in government hospitals force patients to private facilities.

    What are the present Regulations implemented by the govt for this Sector?

    • Clinical Establishments Act, 2010: This act aims to regulate diagnostic centers but has been adopted by only 12 states and Union Territories, leading to inconsistent regulations across the country.  
    • Medical Devices Rules, 2017: These rules govern medical devices, an integral part of the diagnostics framework, focusing on manufacturing, import, sale, distribution, and quality and safety control. They provide risk-based categorization, establish product standards, and set timelines for obtaining licenses.
    • State-Specific Regulations: Some states like Karnataka and Kerala have separate regulatory frameworks, but enforcement remains inconsistent. Tamil Nadu’s Clinical Establishments (Regulations) Rules, 2018, mandate minimum space requirements for labs.
    • Pricing Regulations for Government-Led Diagnostic Schemes: Limits test costs to reduce out-of-pocket expenses for patients. Example: Telangana’s T-Diagnostics Programme has conducted 18.10 crore tests at subsidized rates, saving ₹1,100 crore for patients.
    • Mandatory Quality Control & External Audits: Enforces periodic inspections to maintain test accuracy. Example: Karnataka’s KPME Act mandates SOPs for sample collection, testing, and reporting, with penalties for non-compliance.

     

    Way forward: 

    • Expand Rural Diagnostic Infrastructure: Strengthen public-private partnerships (PPPs) to enhance diagnostic services in rural areas, improve affordability, and ensure equitable access through mobile labs and telemedicine integration.
    • Enforce Uniform Regulatory Standards: Implement a nationwide mandatory NABL accreditation and standard operating procedures (SOPs) for all diagnostic centers to ensure quality, accuracy, and compliance across states.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q What do you understand by nanotechnology and how is it helping in health sector? (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment (BioE3) Policy

    Why in the News?

    After the BioE3 Policy approval in August 2024, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) held consultations with State governments on setting up biomanufacturing facilities across India.

    What is the BioE3 Policy?

    • It is a national initiative by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science and Technology to promote biomanufacturing and a circular bioeconomy in India.
      • Biomanufacturing involves the industrial production of bio-products such as biopolymers, enzymes, smart proteins, functional foods, precision biotherapeutics, and climate-resilient agricultural products.
    • It focuses on scaling up biotechnology-based industries, enhancing research and innovation, and creating employment opportunities in sustainable bio-based sectors.
    • It aligns with India’s Net Zero carbon commitment and aims to make biomanufacturing a key driver of economic growth.

    Objectives and Features of the BioE3 Policy

    • Promoting Biomanufacturing: Establishing biomanufacturing hubs and biofoundries to produce bio-based chemicals, polymers, and enzymes.
    • Strengthening R&D and Innovation: Encouraging state-driven biotechnology policies, bio-AI hubs, and technology-driven bioindustries.
    • State-Centric Implementation: States will adopt at least two thematic areas under BioE3, focusing on local bio-based industries and sustainable agriculture.
    • Workforce Development: Expanding biotechnology training programs in Tier-II and Tier-III cities to build a skilled workforce.
    • Biosafety and Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring adherence to global biosafety standards and responsible biotechnology innovation.
    • Carbon Capture and Sustainability: Supporting carbon sequestration technologies and climate-resilient agriculture to mitigate climate change impacts.
    • Encouraging Private Sector Investment: Creating a business-friendly environment for biotech startups, public-private partnerships, and global collaborations.

    Programs Implemented Under the BioE3 Policy:

    • State-Centric BioE3 Cells: Dedicated cells will be established in State departments to coordinate investments, research, and policy execution.
    • Precision Biotherapeutics and Functional Foods Initiative: Research into next-generation bio-based medicines, smart proteins, and functional foods.
    • Carbon Capture and Bioeconomy Models: Development of technologies for carbon sequestration and sustainable bio-based industrial processes.
    • Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between government, industry, and research institutions to drive biomanufacturing investments and commercialization.

    PYQ:

    [2015] With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Railways, consider the following statements:

    1. The decomposition of human waste in the bio-toilets is initiated by a fungal inoculum.

    2. Ammonia and water vapour are the only end products in this decomposition which are released into the atmosphere.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Samudrayaan Project

    Why in the News?

    In a major boost to India’s Deep Ocean Mission, Finance Minister allocated ₹600 crore for the Samudrayaan project under the Union Budget 2025-26.

    About Samudrayaan Project

    • Samudrayaan is India’s first manned deep-sea mission, designed for exploring ocean resources and conducting deep-sea research.
    • It falls under the Deep Ocean Mission (DOM) of the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
    • The project involves sending scientists in a deep-sea submersible to explore mineral resources and biodiversity at depths of up to 6,000 metres.
    • With this project, India will join an elite group of nations (USA, Russia, China, Japan, and France) capable of deep-sea manned exploration.
    • Aims and Objectives
      • Deep-Ocean Exploration: Study deep-sea resources, including minerals, hydrothermal vents, and marine biodiversity.
      • Technological Development: Advance underwater robotics, deep-sea mining technology, and manned submersible vehicles.
      • Sustainable Resource Utilization: Explore polymetallic nodules, which contain cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper.

    Significant Features:

    • Manned Submersible: MATSYA 6000:
      • Being developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai.
      • Developed under Samudrayaan to carry three crew members for up to 12 hours of exploration (extendable to 96 hours in emergencies).
      • Designed for operation at a depth of 6,000 metres.
      • Equipped with life-support systems and scientific sensors.
    • Exploration of India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ):
      • Mapping the ocean floor for mineral resources.
      • Conducting geological and environmental studies for sustainable deep-sea mining.

    PYQ:

    [2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:

    1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
    2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
    3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3