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GS Paper: GS3-16.Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology

  • Inaugural Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar, 2024 announced 

    Why in the News?

    G Padmanabhan, the Chandrayaan-3 team, Annapurni Subramaniam, and 30 others have been chosen for the inaugural Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP), India’s new national science awards established last year.

    What is Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar?

    • The RVP comprises four awards:
    1. Vigyan Ratna for lifetime achievement.
    2. Vigyan Shri for scientists of all ages.
    3. Vigyan Yuva for scientists under 45 years.
    4. Vigyan Team for collaborative research work.
    • These awards were instituted last year, replacing all existing science awards, including the prestigious Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize.
    • The Vigyan Yuva now serves as a replacement for the Bhatnagar Prize, which also recognized outstanding scientists below 45 years.

    Ceremony Details:

    • These awards shall be announced on the National Technology Day (11th May) every year.
    • The Award Ceremony for all categories of awards shall be held every year on the National Space Day on 23rd August.
    • The Hon’ble President of India / The Hon’ble Vice President of India may confer the Awards.

    Notable Awardees

    • G Padmanabhan: At 86, G Padmanabhan, a renowned biochemist known for his work on the malaria parasite, has been named a Vigyan Ratna, recognizing his lifetime achievement in science. Padmanabhan is a towering figure in Indian science and has been honored with the Padma Shri and Padma Bhushan.
    • Chandrayaan-3 Team: The team behind Chandrayaan-3, which successfully landed India’s first spacecraft on the Moon last year, has been awarded the Vigyan Team award for their collaborative research work.
    • Vigyan Yuva Puraskar Recipients:
      • Vivek Polshettiwar (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai): A chemist working on carbon capture technologies.
      • Urbasi Sinha (Raman Research Institute, Bengaluru): A leading expert in quantum research.
      • Roxy Mathew Koll (Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune): A climate scientist.
    • Annapurni Subramaniam:
      • Among the 13 scientists selected for the Vigyan Shri award, Annapurni Subramaniam’s main research focuses on the formation and evolution of star clusters and galaxies.
    • Other Vigyan Shri Recipients:
      • Jayant Bhalchandra Udgaonkar: A biologist and former director of IISER Pune.
      • Naba Kumar Mondal: A particle physicist from Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata.

    PYQ:

    [2009] For outstanding contribution to which one of the following fields is Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize given?

    (a) Literature

    (b) Performing Arts

    (c) Science

    (d) Social Service

  • What is FnCas9 Enzyme?

    Why in the News?

    • Scientists from the “CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology” have developed an enhanced genome-editing system using FnCas9 that can modify DNA more precisely and more efficiently than existing CRISPR-based technologies.
      • CRISPR occurs naturally in some bacteria, as a part of their immune system that limits infections by recognizing and destroying viral DNA.

    What is FnCas9?

    • FnCas9 is a variant of the Cas9 enzyme derived from the bacterium Francisella novicida.
    • It is used in genome editing technologies, particularly within the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) system, to make precise modifications to DNA sequences.

    What is CRISPR-Cas9 System?

    • CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary genome-editing tool adapted from a natural bacterial defense mechanism against viruses.
    • Bacteria use CRISPR sequences to store segments of viral DNA, which helps them recognize and combat viruses in subsequent infections.
    • The most commonly used Cas9 enzyme is derived from Streptococcus pyogenes.

    Mechanism:

    • Guide RNA (gRNA): A specifically designed RNA molecule that matches the target DNA sequence.
    • Cas9 Enzyme: Acts as molecular scissors that cut DNA at a location specified by the gRNA.
    • Proto-spacer Adjacent Motif (PAM): A short DNA sequence adjacent to the target site that Cas9 must recognize and bind to in order to cut the DNA.
    • DNA Repair: Once the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms either repair the break or introduce desired genetic changes.

    Applications:

    • Agriculture: Enhancing crop yield and nutritional value.
    • Healthcare: Diagnosing and treating genetic disorders.
    • Research: Studying gene functions and interactions.

    Challenges with Traditional Cas9: SpCas9 can sometimes cut DNA at unintended sites, leading to potential unintended genetic modifications.

    How FnCas9 overpowers traditional Cas9 (SpCas9)?

    • FnCas9 is known for its higher specificity in targeting DNA sequences compared to SpCas9, resulting in fewer off-target effects.
    • More accurate targeting reduces unintended genetic modifications.
    • It ensures more reliable and safer genome editing.

    Achievements by Indian Scientists

    • Scientists at the CSIR-IGIB in New Delhi have modified FnCas9 to enhance its efficiency without compromising specificity.
    • Key Modifications include:
      • Amino Acid Tinkering: Researchers modified amino acids in FnCas9 that interact with the PAM sequence to increase binding affinity.
      • Improved Binding: Enhanced binding affinity allows FnCas9 to sit more securely on the DNA, improving gene-editing effectiveness.
      • Flexibility: The enhanced FnCas9 can access and edit hard-to-reach regions of the genome.

    Experimental Results:

    • Enhanced FnCas9 cuts target DNA at a higher rate than the unmodified version.
    • FnCas9 improved ability to detect single-nucleotide changes in the genome, broadening its diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
    PYQ:

    [2019] What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news?

    (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

    (b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

    (c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

    (d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

    [2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:

    (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing

    (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

    (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression

    (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells

  • ICMR develops CRISPR Cas-based TB Detection Kit

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Regional Medical Research Centre for North East has developed the “world’s cheapest CRISPR Cas-based TB testing system”.

    Back2Basics: CRISPR-Cas9 Technology

    • CRISPR-Cas9 stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.
    • It is a technology that allows geneticists and researchers to edit parts of the genome by altering sections of the DNA sequence.
    • Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna’s work on CRISPR-Cas9 as a ‘molecular scissor’ earned them the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
    • The system consists of two key components:
    1. Cas9: This is the enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors. It is responsible for cutting the DNA strand at a specific location, allowing for the removal, addition, or alteration of DNA at that site.
    2. Guide RNA (gRNA): This is a piece of RNA that is designed to find and bind to a specific sequence of DNA that matches its code. The gRNA guides the Cas9 enzyme to the exact spot in the genome where an edit is desired.
    • Mechanism:
      • The process begins with the design of a gRNA that matches the DNA sequence where an edit is needed.
      • Once inside the cell, the Cas9 enzyme and the gRNA form a complex that can identify and bind to the target DNA sequence.
      • The Cas9 then cuts the DNA at this location.
      • After the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms can be harnessed to add or remove genetic material, or to make specific changes to the DNA.
    • Applications: Used for gene editing to correct genetic disorders, develop targeted cancer therapies, enhance diagnostics for infectious diseases, and create personalized medicine approaches.

    About the New TB Detection System

    • The system can detect TB bacteria using DNA from a patient’s saliva at a very low cost.
      • Specific DNA sequences unique to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the bacteria causing TB) are identified.
    • It can identify the bacteria in preliminary stages and test over 1,500 samples simultaneously within approximately two hours.
    • The technology is simple enough to be used in primary health centres in villages.

    TB Situation in India:

    • TB kills an estimated 480,000 Indians annually, or over 1,400 patients every day.
    • India has more than a million ‘missing’ TB cases each year, which remain undiagnosed or inadequately diagnosed and treated in the private sector.

    National Goals for Elimination of TB: 

    • Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (2022): It is stipulated to meet the goal of ending the TB epidemic by 2025 from the country, five years ahead of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030.
    • Nikshay Poshan Yojana (2018): Launched in 2018, this scheme provides nutritional support to TB patients. Under this scheme, TB patients receive a direct benefit transfer (DBT) of Rs. 500 per month to purchase food.

    PYQ:

    [2019] What is Cas9 Protein that is often mentioned in news?

    (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

    (b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

    (c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

    (d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

    [2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

  • As thoughts become digitised, who will protect our Neurorights? 

    Why in the News?

    Many researchers anticipate the imminent development of wearable EEGs capable of enhancing human cognitive functions directly.

    • Elon Musk’s Neuralink has also sparked optimism by exploring brain-computer interfaces to potentially restore lost functions in physically impaired individuals.
    • Neuralink is a company founded by Elon Musk in 2016 that’s developing a brain-computer interface called “the Link,” which is a surgically embedded neural-chip implant designed to decode and stimulate brain activity.
    • Neuralink implanted its first device in a patient’s brain in January 2024.

    What is EEG?

    EEGs refer to electroencephalograms, which are devices used to record electrical activity in the brain. These devices are valuable in neuroscience for monitoring brain functions and diagnosing various neurological conditions.

    What is Neuroscience?

    Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. It is a multidisciplinary field that combines various approaches to understand the structure, function, and disorders of the nervous system.

    What is Neuro data?

    Neuro-data refers to data related to the nervous system, particularly the brain. It encompasses various types of data collected through neuroscience research and clinical studies.

    Significance of Neurodata:

    • Medical Advancements: It has the potential to provide precise diagnosis and personalized treatment of neurological disorders. It facilitates the continuous monitoring of brain health and early detection of abnormalities.
    • Technological Innovation: It supports the development of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and wearable neurodevices. It would enhance rehabilitation options for individuals with neurological impairments.
    • Research and Insights: It can provide data for studying brain functions, cognition, and behaviour. It fuels advancements in neuroscience, leading to new therapies and interventions.

    What are your neurorights?

    • Right to Mental Privacy: Individuals have the right to privacy concerning their neural activities and cognitive processes. This includes protection against unauthorized access to neural data and ensuring confidentiality in the use of neurotechnologies.
    • Right to Neurological Integrity: Individuals possess the right to autonomy over their neurological functions and activities. This entails the freedom from undue manipulation or coercion through neurotechnological interventions, ensuring that such technologies respect and preserve individuals’ neurological integrity.

    What is Neuroethics?

    Neuroethics is a field that addresses the ethical, legal, and social implications of advancements in neuroscience and neurotechnologies. It aims to ensure that the development and application of these technologies benefit humanity while minimising harm.

     

    The digitisation of neuro-data raises great opportunities as well as concerns  

    • Opportunities:

      • Enhanced Cognitive Assistance: Wearable EEGs and other neurotech devices can directly aid cognitive functions. For example, Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) like Neuralink could help physically impaired individuals restore lost functions.
      • Medical Advancements: It provides Real-time health monitoring and personalized healthcare options. For example, Improved diagnosis and treatment of brain disorders through detailed neuro-data.
      • Commercial and Research Value: It provides Valuable insights for neuromarketing to understand and influence consumer behaviour.
      • Integration with Daily Life: It can be used in daily life by using Smartwatches and apps that can track physiological activities and emotions, integrating neurotech into everyday activities.

    • Concerns:

      • Surveillance Risks: It has a potential misuse of neuro data for monitoring by employers, governments, and private companies.
      • Privacy and Security: It may threaten mental privacy and autonomy with the collection and analysis of sensitive neuro data.
      • Ethical and Legal Challenges: It has the potential for ethical dilemmas in mental privacy, consent, and the use of neurotech in various societal contexts.
      • Impact on Individual Rights: The right to think freely and safeguard one’s mental state from monitoring could be compromised. For example, Digitized health data’s commercial value could lead to exploitation and loss of personal control.

    Initiatives related to neuroethics: 

    • Institutional Efforts:
      • U.S. Presidential Commission on Bioethics: In 2015, it published the ‘Gray Matters’ report, addressing cognitive enhancement, consent capacity, and the legal implications of neuroscience.
    • Global Initiatives:
      • OECD Recommendations: In 2019, the OECD recommended principles such as safeguarding personal brain data and monitoring potential misuse of neurotechnologies.
      • UNESCO’s Concerns: In 2022, UNESCO highlighted issues related to human identity, freedom of thought, and privacy, emphasizing the risks of unauthorized access to neural data.
    • Research and Training:
      • Institute of Neuroethics: In 2023, researchers emphasized the need for proactive consideration of the implications of scientific advances and incorporating ethics into research training.

    Conclusion: Governments and international bodies should collaborate to create robust regulations that govern the collection, use, and sharing of neuro data. These regulations should ensure that neurotechnologies are used ethically, protecting mental privacy, consent, and individual rights.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Discuss the advantages and security implications of cloud hosting of servers vis-a-vis in-house machine-based hosting for government business. (2015)

  • ISRO has a problem: many rockets, but too few satellites to launch 

    Why in the News? 

    After the ambitious Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) was finalized in June 2024, ISRO Chairman S. Somanath stated its launch capability exceeded demand threefold, highlighting a need for robust domestic market demand for launch vehicles.

    What is the present scenario of Satellites in India?   

    • India operates a diverse fleet of satellites with applications in Communications, Remote Sensing, Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT), Meteorology, Disaster Management, Space-based internet, Scientific missions, and Experimental missions.
    • India currently has four main launch vehicles: the Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV), the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), and the Launch Vehicle Mark-III (LVM-3), capable of launching satellites up to four tonnes to geosynchronous orbit.
    • For satellites weighing more than four tonnes, India relies on foreign launch vehicles, such as Europe’s Ariane V and SpaceX’s Falcon 9, to meet its heavy payload requirements.
    • India has been actively involved in significant space missions like Chandrayaan 3 (a lunar mission) and Aditya L1 (a mission to study the Sun), showcasing its growing capabilities in space exploration.

    Existing Demand-Driven Model in India – Before and After       

    • Before (Supply-Driven Model)
        • The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) primarily built and launched satellites based on its assessments and planned missions without waiting for specific customer demands.
        • After launching satellites, ISRO would then look for customers who needed the services provided by the satellites, which sometimes led to underutilization or delayed utilization of satellite capabilities.
        • The space sector was heavily government-controlled, with limited involvement and investment from private players
        • There was less emphasis on educating potential customers about the benefits and applications of space-based services, leading to lower demand from various sectors.
    • After 2020 (Demand-Driven Model)
      • The Space sector reforms 2019-2020 encouraged greater private sector participation, fostering innovation, competition, and commercialization in the Indian space industry.
      • Satellites are now built and launched based on confirmed customer demands, ensuring that each satellite has a predefined purpose and user base before it is sent into space.
      • The market demand for satellite services is validated and secured before the construction and launch phases, leading to better alignment of resources and higher utilization rates.

    Major Three Limitations Associated at Present Time:

    • Limited Launch Vehicle Capability: Currently, the Indian launch vehicles have restricted payload capacities, necessitating multiple launches for larger missions, increasing costs and complexity.
    • Demand-Supply Mismatch: Transitioning from a supply-driven to a demand-driven model faces challenges, including the need to educate potential customers and create a robust private sector ecosystem.
    • Economic and Technological Constraints: High costs of developing and maintaining launch vehicles and satellites, coupled with the early stages of implementing cost-effective reusable technologies, and insufficient infrastructure and investment.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Launch Vehicle Capacity: Invest in research and development to upgrade existing launch vehicles like GSLV and LVM-3 to increase payload capacity, reducing dependence on foreign launch providers.
    • Strengthen Market Engagement and Education: Expand outreach programs to educate potential customers across sectors about the benefits and applications of satellite-based services.
    • Promote Private Sector Participation: Facilitate a conducive regulatory environment to attract private investments and foster innovation in satellite manufacturing and launch services.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions. What are the main obstacles to launching a manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Examine critically. (UPSC IAS/2017)

  • ISRO’s plans to venture into planetary defence 

    Why in the news? 

    Last week, ISRO Chairman S Somanath expressed the possibility of engaging with the asteroid Apophis during its close approach to Earth at a distance of 32,000 km in 2029. However, the specific manner of ISRO’s involvement has not yet been determined.

    Space objects: 


    The asteroid Apophis may pose a threat:

    • Initial Concerns: Discovered in 2004, Apophis initially posed a 2.7% chance of colliding with Earth, raising alarms due to its size (about 450 m wide).
    • Revised Risk: Subsequent observations ruled out immediate collision risks in 2029, 2036, and 2068, but it will pass close to Earth in 2029 at 32,000 km.
    • Potential Impact: Its size could cause significant damage if it were to collide with Earth, though recent observations suggest no imminent danger.

    Other possible incoming threats from space:

    • Daily Encounters: Thousands of asteroids enter Earth’s atmosphere daily, most burning up due to friction, causing phenomena like fireballs.
    • Russian Example: In 2013, a 20-meter asteroid exploded above Russia, releasing significant energy and causing damage and injuries.
    • Detection Challenges: Some asteroids are detected only upon entering the atmosphere, especially those coming from the direction of the Sun, which can obscure detection.

    ISRO’s plan: From sci-fi to reality:

    • Planetary Defense Initiative: ISRO aims to develop capabilities in planetary defense, potentially participating in missions to study and potentially deflect asteroids.
    • Collaboration: Considering sending its own spacecraft or collaborating with other space agencies, like NASA, which has already redirected a spacecraft to study Apophis in 2029.
    • Evolution of ISRO: Reflects ISRO’s evolution as a space agency, transitioning from aspirations to reality in tackling global space objectives, demonstrating growing confidence and capabilities.

    Way forward: 

    • Form Partnerships: ISRO should actively seek partnerships with leading space agencies like NASA, ESA (European Space Agency), and others involved in asteroid detection and planetary defense.
    • Joint Missions: Collaborate on joint missions to study and potentially mitigate asteroid threats. This could include sharing resources, technology, and expertise to maximize effectiveness and minimize costs.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC IAS/2019)

  • Scientists find proof that Pain-Sensing Cells are either Male or Female

    Why in the News?

    Recent research has uncovered significant differences in how male and female nociceptors (pain receptors) are activated, paving the way for more precise, sex-specific pain management therapies. 

    About Pain and Differences in Perception:

    • The International Association for the Study of Pain defines it as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage.”
    • Subjectivity: Pain perception is highly personal and varies among individuals.
    • Scientific Findings: Recent research by the University of Arizona Health Sciences demonstrated functional sexual dimorphism in nociceptors, the nerve cells responsible for perceiving pain

    Why do we perceive Pain?

    • Role of Nociceptors: Nociceptors are nerve cells with bare endings found throughout the body. They detect extreme pressure, temperature, and chemical signals, converting them into electrical signals sent to the brain via the spinal cord.
    • Activation Mechanism: Nociceptors in both men and women produce similar pain perceptions but are activated differently. 
      • Normally, they respond to high-intensity stimuli, but their activation threshold can decrease under certain conditions, causing low-intensity stimuli to trigger pain.

    Nociceptor Response Threshold

    • Gender Differences: Females generally have a lower nociceptor response threshold than males.
    • Peripheral Nociceptor Sensitisation: External factors can lower the pain threshold, causing nociceptors to react to stimuli they would normally ignore.

    The Old Vs New Study

    • Previous research showed that the hormone prolactin increases pain responses in female rodents, while the neurotransmitter orexin B sensitized male rodents to pain.
    • According to the New study, the Prolactin hormone increased nociceptor activation in female mice, while orexin-B had a similar effect in male mice. These findings were consistent across monkeys and humans.
    • Nociceptors in males and females can be differentially sensitized, leading to varying pain thresholds.

    Significance of this Pain Research

    • Sex-Specific Pain Treatment: Current pain management often overlooks the patient’s sex, despite differences in pain conditions between men and women.
      • Conditions like irritable bowel syndrome, migraines, and painful bladder syndrome are more common in women, while cluster headaches and gout are more frequent in men.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society?

     

  • Nuclear Study provides major update on Plutonium Isotope Fission

    Why in the News?

    Recently a study was conducted on Prompt Fission Neutron Spectrum (PFNS) by the US. This study holds significance for design updates in India’s second stage of its nuclear power programme.

    India’s Progress in Nuclear Energy

    On March 4, India advanced to the second stage of its nuclear power programme by beginning the core-loading process of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at the Madras Atomic Power Station in Kalpakkam. 

    India’s 3-stage Nuclear Power Program:

    Description Timeline
    Stage 1 Relies on pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium as fuel. Initiated in the 1950s;

    Operational since the 1960s
    Stage 2 Focuses on developing fast breeder reactors (FBRs) using plutonium-239 produced in Stage 1. Initiated in the 1970s;

    Development phase
    Stage 3 Involves the development of thorium-based reactors utilizing India’s significant thorium reserves. Initiated in the late 1980s/early 1990s;

    Research & Development phase

    What is Prompt Fission Neutron Spectrum (PFNS)?

    • Definition: PFNS refers to neutrons emitted right after a Pu-240 nucleus captures a neutron but before it reaches a stable state.
    • Previous Studies: To date, only one study has investigated PFNS for Pu-240-induced fission at 0.85 mega-electron-volt (MeV). Recently, researchers in the U.S. conducted a second study with neutrons of higher energy than 0.85 MeV.
    • New Findings: The findings reveal significant differences between predicted and measured PFNS, aiding reactor designers and nuclear medicine practitioners.

    About Plutonium-240 and its Fission

    • Neutron Capture: When a Pu-239 nucleus captures a neutron, it can either undergo fission or become Pu-240.
      • Pu-240 is common in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapon test fallout.
    • Pu-240 Behavior: Pu-240 capturing a neutron typically turns into Pu-241.
      • If Pu-240 undergoes fission, there’s uncertainty about the energy of its fission products.
      • Current models use complex calculations to estimate this output.

    Do you know?

    • Plutonium is created from Uranium-238 in nuclear reactors.
    • Plutonium-239 is a weapon-grade fissile material (i.e. used to make nuclear weapons).
      • Pu-239 and Pu-240 are by-products of nuclear reactor operations and nuclear bomb explosions.

    Relevance of PFNS Study to India’s PFBR

    • PFBR Use: The PFBR uses plutonium from CANDU (Canada Deuterium Uranium) reactor spent fuel, which contains Pu-240. Reprocessed PFBR spent fuel will also contain Pu-240.
    • Importance of New Data: New data on Pu-240 behaviour is essential for improving reactor efficiency and safety.

    Production and Characteristics of Pu-240

    • Creation of Pu-239: Pu-239 is created when U-238 is exposed to neutrons in a reactor. As Pu-239 captures neutrons, it turns into Pu-240, which builds up over time.
    • Spontaneous Fission: Pu-240 undergoes spontaneous fission, emitting alpha particles, and is considered a contaminant in weapons-grade plutonium, where its composition is kept below 7%.
    • Reactor-Grade Plutonium: Plutonium with more than 19% Pu-240 is classified as reactor-grade.

    Experimental Findings on PFNS

    • Research at LANSCE: Researchers at Los Alamos Neutron Science Centre (LANSCE) conducted tests by bombarding a pure Pu-240 sample with neutrons of 0.01-800 MeV energy.
    • Detection Setup: The setup included liquid scintillators to detect emitted particles, using a small Pu-240 sample to minimize alpha particle emission.
    • Measurement Focus: They measured the energies of neutrons and other fission products, focusing on neutron-induced fission data.

    PYQ:

    [2023] Consider the following statements:

    • Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most its electricity production.
    • Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent at of least 60%, is required for the production of electricity.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

    (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1

    (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect

    (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

  • Lal Crater on Mars

    Why in the News?

    Back2Basics: International Astronomical Union (IAU)

    • The IAU was founded on July 28, 1919, during the Constitutive Assembly held in Brussels, Belgium.
    • Its creation was prompted by the need for international collaboration in astronomy, especially after the devastation caused by World War I.
    • It aims to promote and safeguard astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation.
    • IAU is now headquartered in Paris, France.

    Major Activities and Initiatives

    • General Assembly: The IAU holds a general assembly every three years in varying parts of the world at which professional astronomers meet to discuss research, new cooperative ventures, and similar matters of professional interest.
    • Astronomical Nomenclature: IAU standardises the nomenclature of celestial bodies, features, and phenomena. It maintains several working groups dedicated to naming conventions for stars, planets, asteroids, and other objects.
    • Research and Collaboration: It promotes international cooperation in astronomical research and supports initiatives such as observational campaigns, data sharing, and joint projects.
    • Education and Outreach: It is actively involved in promoting astronomy education and public outreach efforts worldwide. It supports educational programs, workshops, and resources for students, teachers, and the general public.

    Membership

    1. IAU membership spans 92 countries. Out of those countries, 85 are National Members.
    2. India is represented by the Astronomical Society of India (ASI).
    3. Its members are professional astronomers from all over the world, at the D. level and beyond, who are active in professional research, education, and outreach in astronomy.

    Crater Names and Significance

    • Lal Crater: Named after Prof. Devendra Lal, former director of PRL, this 65 km wide crater is positioned at -20.98° and 209.34°.
    • Mursan Crater: Named after a town in Uttar Pradesh, India, this ~10 km wide crater is situated on the eastern side of the Lal crater’s rim.
    • Hilsa Crater: Named after a town in Bihar, India, this ~10 km wide crater is positioned on the western side of the Lal crater’s rim.

    Scientific Importance of Lal Crater

    • Lava Coverage: The entire Lal crater area, located in the Tharsis volcanic region on Mars, is covered with lava.
    • Evidence of Water: Geophysical evidence, including a 45-meter thick sedimentary deposit, suggests the presence of water in the subsurface of the Lal crater. This finding supports the theory that Mars once had water flowing on its surface.
    • Infilling Process: Mursan and Hilsa craters, positioned on either side of the Lal crater, offer insights into the infilling process of the Lal crater. Their presence indicates that infilling occurred episodically over time.

    India’s 2nd Quest for Mars

    • The ISRO is expected to launch Mangalyaan-2, or Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM 2), in 2025.
    • The mission will last one year and is aimed at studying the Red Planet.
    • The successor to Mangalyaan-1, or Mars Orbiter Mission 1 (MOM 1), Mangalyaan-2 will consist of only one orbiter and will be launched atop a GSLV Mark III rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.

    Other missions to Mars

    • ExoMars rover (2022): European Space Agency’s mission to explore Mars.
    • Tianwen-1 (2021): China’s Mars Mission aims to explore and study the Martian surface.
    • UAE’s Hope Mars Mission (2021): UAE’s first interplanetary mission focused on studying the Martian atmosphere.
    • NASA’s Mars Insight (2018): A lander designed to study the interior of Mars.
    • NASA’s Curiosity (2012) and Perseverance (2020): Rovers exploring the Martian surface.
    • NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2005), Mars Odyssey (2001), and MAVEN (2013): Orbiters studying Mars from space.
    • Mars 2 and Mars 3 (1971): Soviet Union’s missions to Mars, which included orbiter and lander components.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

    1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
    2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
    3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Portable Optical Atomic Clock for accurate timekeeping at Sea

    Why in the News?

    • Atomic clocks power GPS systems, guiding us in navigation, emergencies, and military operations.
      • Scientists are developing optical atomic clocks to enhance timekeeping accuracy for Navies.

    What are Atomic Clocks?

    • Atomic clocks are accurate timekeeping devices that use the vibrations of atoms as a precise measure of time.
    • They rely on the natural oscillations of atoms, usually Caesium or Rubidium atoms, which are extremely stable and predictable.
    • This stability allows atomic clocks to keep time with extraordinary accuracy, often losing or gaining less than a second over millions of years.
      • However they are big, need a lot of power, and are expensive, so they’re mostly used in big research places.

    Working Principle:

    • Use of Stable Atoms: Atomic clocks use stable atoms like Cs-133 to keep time really accurate.
    • Atom Energy Levels: Atoms have energy levels like steps on a ladder, and they move between these levels when they’re excited.
    • Creating Resonance: Cesium atomic clocks make caesium atoms vibrate by using microwave radiation at a certain frequency.
    • Defining Time: One second is how long it takes for caesium atoms to vibrate a certain number of times, which sets the standard for time.
    • Accuracy Control: Atomic clocks keep themselves accurate by constantly adjusting to make sure they’re vibrating at the right rate.

    Portable Optical Atomic Clocks for Maritime Use

    • New portable optical atomic clocks for ships are more accurate and durable, making them suitable for use at sea.
    • These clocks are the best at sea, which is a big deal for keeping time on ships.

    How Optical Atomic Clocks Are Different?

    • Use of Laser: Optical atomic clocks are even more accurate because they use lasers instead of microwaves.
    • Operating Frequency: They work at higher frequencies, which means they can measure smaller time intervals more precisely.
    • Narrow Linewidths: Optical atomic clocks are really stable because they have a narrow range of frequencies, which helps them stay accurate.

    Testing and Applications of Portable Optical Atomic Clocks

    • Initial Testing: Scientists tested the new clocks and found they were really stable and accurate, which is a big deal for keeping time.
    • Comparative Performance: These new clocks worked better than old ones, showing they could change how we keep time.
    • Sea Trials: Tests at sea showed the clocks worked well even on a moving ship, proving they could be used for navigation and other important tasks.

    Do you know?

    • Three rubidium atomic clocks and six hydrogen maser clocks onboard the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) had failed.
    • The failed satellite, IRNSS-1A, is still being used for messaging activities, and the data from other operational satellites will be used to maintain the system’s functionality.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Why is Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How does it help in navigation?

    [2018] With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements:

    1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
    2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders.
    3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 1 and 2 only
    (c) 2 and 3 only
    (d) None