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GS Paper: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

  • IMO Sulphur regulations for Shipping

    The International Maritime Organization (IMO), the shipping agency of the United Nations issued new rules aiming to reduce sulphur emissions, due to which ships are opting for newer blends of fuels.

    What do the new IMO rules say?

    • The IMO has banned ships from using fuels with sulphur content above 0.5 per cent, compared with 3.5 per cent previously.
    • Sulphur oxides (SOx), which are formed after combustion in engines, are known to cause respiratory symptoms and lung disease, while also leading to acid rain.
    • The new regulations, called IMO 2020, have been regarded as the biggest shake up for the oil and shipping industries in decades. It affects more than 50,000 merchant ships worldwide.
    • The new limits are monitored and enforced by national authorities of countries that are members of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Annex VI.

    Cleaner options

    • Under the new policy, only ships fitted with sulphur-cleaning devices, known as scrubbers, are allowed to continue burning high-sulphur fuel.
    • Alternatively, Ships can opt for cleaner fuels, such as marine gasoil (MGO) and very low-sulfur fuel oil (VLSFO).
    • Of the two cleaner fuels, ship-owners were expected to opt for MGO, which is made exclusively from distillates, and has low sulphur content.
    • However, many are reportedly choosing VLSFO, which has better calorific properties and other technical advantages.

    Issues with the rule

    • There are complaints against VLSFO as well, as testing companies have claimed that high sediment formation due to the fuel’s use could damage vessel engines.
    • VLSFO, with 0.5 per cent sulphur content, can contain a large percentage of aromatic compounds, thus having a direct impact on black carbon emissions.
    • Black carbon, which is produced due to the incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels, contributes to climate change.

  • Plantation Corporation of India

    The Union government is likely to announce the setting up of a Plantation Corporation of India in the upcoming budget.

    Plantation Corporation of India

    • The PCI will subsume all afforestation-related schemes currently underway in India including the Green India Mission, National Afforestation Programme and compensatory afforestation.
    • The corporation will use Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) money to undertake the plantations and investment will also come from the global pension fund.
    • CAF is a huge corpus of money collected from projects proponents for diverting forest land to be used for non-forestry activity.

    Issues with PCI

    • Critics have raised concerns over the move’s impact on the federal structure of forest governance in the country.
    • While forests are a concurrent subject, land-related issues are the responsibility of the states.

  • Reintroduction of African Cheetahs in Indian forests

     

    The Supreme Court lifted its seven-year stay on a proposal to introduce African cheetahs from Namibia into the Indian habitat on an experimental basis. The plan was to revive the Indian cheetah population.

    Asiatic cheetahs in India

    • In 1947, Maharaja Ramanuj Pratap Singh of Deoghar of Koriya, Chhattisgarh — who was infamous for shooting over 1,150 tigers — reportedly killed the last known Asiatic cheetah in India.
    • In that year, a few miles from Ramgarh village in the state, the Maharaja killed three of the animals — brothers — during a night drive.
    • After that, the Maharaja’s kin continued to report the presence of a few stragglers in the forests of Surguja district, including a pregnant female, up until the late 1960s.
    • Some more unconfirmed sightings were reported in 1951 and 1952, from the Orissa-Andhra Pradesh border and Chittoor district.
    • The latter sighting is generally accepted to be the final credible sighting of a cheetah in India. In 1952, the cheetah was officially declared extinct from India.

    African cheetah and Asiatic cheetah

    • Before Namibia, India had approached Iran for Asiatic cheetahs, but had been refused.
    • The Asiatic cheetah is classified as a “critically endangered” species by the IUCN Red List, and is believed to survive only in Iran.
    • From 400 in the 1990s, their numbers are estimated to have plummetted to 50-70 today, because of poaching, hunting of their main prey (gazelles) and encroachment on their habitat.
    • ‘Critically endangered’ means that the species faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

    Why does NTCA want to reintroduce cheetahs?

    • A section of conservationists has long advocated the reintroduction of the species in the country.
    • Reintroductions of large carnivores have increasingly been recognised as a strategy to conserve threatened species and restore ecosystem functions.
    • The cheetah is the only large carnivore that has been extirpated, mainly by over-hunting in India in historical times.
    • India now has the economic ability to consider restoring its lost natural heritage for ethical as well as ecological reasons.

    Why was the project halted?

    • The court was also worried whether the African cheetahs would find the sanctuary a favourable clime as far as abundance of prey is concerned.
    • Those who challenged the plan argued that the habitat of cheetahs needed to support a genetically viable population.

    What did court say?

    • The Supreme Court made it clear that a proper survey should be done to identify the best possible habitat for the cheetahs.
    • Every effort should be taken to ensure that they adapt to the Indian conditions.
    • The committee would help, advice and monitor the NTCA on these issues. The action of the introduction of the animal would be left to the NTCA’s discretion.

  • 10 more wetlands from India get the Ramsar site tag

    Ramsar has declared 10 more wetland sites from India as sites of international importance.

    News Ramsar Wetlands

    With this, the numbers of Ramsar sites in India are now 37 and the surface area covered by these sites is now 1,067,939 hectares.

    1. Maharashtra gets its first Ramsar site (Nandur Madhameshwar) ,
    2. Punjab which already had 3 Ramsar sites adds 3 more (Keshopur-Miani, Beas Conservation Reserve, Nangal) and
    3. UP with 1 Ramsar site has added 6 more (Nawabganj, Parvati Agra, Saman, Samaspur, Sandi and Sarsai Nawar).

    Why conserve wetlands?

    • Wetlands provide a wide range of important resources and ecosystem services such as food, water, fibre, groundwater recharge, water purification, flood moderation, erosion control and climate regulation.
    • They are, in fact, are a major source of water and our main supply of freshwater comes from an array of wetlands which help soak rainfall and recharge groundwater.

    Back2Basics

    Ramsar Convention

    • The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (better known as the Ramsar Convention) is an international agreement promoting the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
    • It is the only global treaty to focus on a single ecosystem.
    • The convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975.
    • Traditionally viewed as a wasteland or breeding ground of disease, wetlands actually provide freshwater and food, and serve as nature’s shock absorber.
    • Wetlands, critical for biodiversity, are disappearing rapidly, with recent estimates showing that 64% or more of the world’s wetlands have vanished since 1900.
    • Major changes in land use for agriculture and grazing, water diversion for dams and canals and infrastructure development are considered to be some of the main causes of loss and degradation of wetlands.

  • Biorock technique for Coral Restoration

    The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with help from Gujarat’s forest department, is attempting for the first time a process to restore coral reefs using biorock or mineral accretion technology.

    What is Biorock Technique?

    • Biorock is the name given to the substance formed by electro accumulation of minerals dissolved in seawater on steel structures that are lowered onto the sea bed and are connected to a power source, in this case solar panels that float on the surface.
    • The technology works by passing a small amount of electrical current through electrodes in the water.
    • When a positively charged anode and negatively charged cathode are placed on the sea floor, with an electric current flowing between them, calcium ions combine with carbonate ions and adhere to the structure (cathode).
    • This results in calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly.
    • Fragments of broken corals are also tied to the biorock structure, where they are able to grow at least four to six times faster than their actual growth as they need not spend their energy in building their own calcium carbonate skeletons.

    Significance of the move

    • The technology helps corals, including the highly sensitive branching corals, to counter the threats posed by global warming.
    • In 2015, the same group of ZSI scientists had successfully restored branching coral species (staghorn corals) belonging to the family Acroporidae (Acropora formosa, Acropora humilis, Montipora digitata) that had gone extinct about 10,000 years ago to the Gulf of Kachchh.

    Back2Basics

    Coral Bleaching

    • The stunning colours in corals come from a marine algae called zooxanthellae, which live inside their tissues.
    • This algae provides the corals with an easy food supply thanks to photosynthesis, which gives the corals energy, allowing them to grow and reproduce.
    • When corals get stressed, from things such as heat or pollution, they react by expelling this algae, leaving a ghostly, transparent skeleton behind.
    • This is known as ‘coral bleaching’. Some corals can feed themselves, but without the zooxanthellae most corals starve.

  • Threat of Invasive Alien Species in Shola Forests of the Nilgiris

     

    Shola Forests

    • The Shola forests of South India derive their name from the Tamil word solai, which means a ‘tropical rain forest’.
    • Classified as ‘Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forest’ the Sholas are found in the upper reaches of the Nilgiris, Anamalais, Palni hills, Kalakadu, Mundanthurai and Kanyakumari in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
    • These forests are found sheltered in valleys with sufficient moisture and proper drainage, at an altitude of more than 1,500 metres.

    Vegetation

    • The upper reaches are covered with grasslands, known as Shola grasslands.
    • The vegetation that grows in Shola forests is evergreen. The trees are stunted and have many branches. Their rounded and dense canopies appear in different colours.
    • Generally, the leaves are small in size and leathery. Red-coloured young leaves turning into different colours on maturity is a prominent characteristic of the Shola forests.
    • Epiphytes like lichens, ferns and bryophytes usually grow on the trees.
    • The occurrence of Himalayan plants like rhododendron in these Shola forests is a mystery.

    Significance of Sholas

    • Sholas thus act as ‘overhead water tanks’. They play a major role in conserving water supply of the Nilgiris’ streams.
    • The trees are slow-growing varieties which produce timber of little or no value and probably take at least a century to mature.
    • The rolling grasslands found on top of the Western Ghats, enhance the beauty of the region. Usually, Shola forests and grasslands are found in a ratio of 1:5.
    • The rain received from the Southwest and Northeast monsoons is harvested by the Shola forest-grassland ecosystem, leading to the formation of the Bhavani river that finally drains into the Cauvery.
    • Thus, the Shola forest-grassland ecosystem of the Nilgiris, also supports the prosperity of Cauvery delta farmers.
    • As tree species of the montane, evergreen forests are flammable, regeneration of any Shola tree species is completely prevented except for Rhododendron nilagiricum, the only Shola tree that can tolerate fire.

    Threats to Sholas

    • Unfortunately, the Sholas have begun to gradually shrink due to the introduction of alien plant species and annual fire occurrences.
    • Alien species like Sticky Snakeroot, Gorse and Scotch Broom introduced during British rule, have encroached upon the grasslands.
    • During 1840, tree species such as Acacia and Eucalyptus were introduced from Australia.
    • Afterwards, between 1886 and 1891, Pine and Cypress were introduced, again from Australia. As the alien species grew, the forests and grasslands gradually became degraded and shrank.
    • In addition, unscientific agricultural practices like growing tea on the slopes, cattle grazing and fuel wood collection have become serious causes for degradation.
    • Unregulated tourism has created concrete jungles, traffic congestion and caused the generation of garbage.

    Wrath of Eucalyptus

    • During 1849, the extent of Shola forests was 8,600 hectares (ha), grasslands 29,875 ha and agriculture was 10,875 ha.
    • No wattle or eucalyptus was planted in the area at that time.
    • The comparison of the results of the 1849 and 1992 studies shows that cultivation of tea, wattle and eucalyptus has reduced the Shola forest-grassland ecosystem to a great extent.

    Protective measures

    • After realizing the seriousness of the situation, the government banned the planting of wattle and eucalyptus completely in 1987.
    • Ecological restoration and biodiversity conservation were given importance.
    • Under the Hill Area Development Programme since the mid-1980s, seedlings have been planted in degraded patches and protected with chain-link fences to restore the forests.
    • Special Shola forest protection committees were formed involving teachers, nature lovers, ecologists, environmentalists, students and villagers in the Nilgiris.
    • They were motivated to remove plastic garbage from the nearby forests, protect Shola trees, remove alien species and learn about the importance of the Sholas.
    • Presently, the Tamil Nadu forest department is now focusing on eradicating wattle, providing fencing and planting shola seedlings in degraded shola forests.

  • [op-ed snap] Think climate change action, act glocal

    Context

    The recent global climate summit, the annual Conference of the Parties (COP25), held in Madrid was a failure and that the multilateral process to address the climate crisis is broken. The growing global stalemate gives India the chance to focus on the State and sub-State levels.

    COP 25 at Madrid and what future prospects

    • Wealthy countries disowning responsibility: At several discussions on finance, ambition, transparency of support and pre-2020 action, wealthy countries were recalcitrant.
      • Disavowing obligations: Although responsible for using the bulk of the carbon space in the atmosphere, they now disavow their obligations. With some even denying anthropogenic climate change.
      • Complete severance of science from negotiations: At this stage, there is a complete severance of climate science from the negotiations and agreements at the global level.
      • The question is, what can we do now?
    • What can happen at the next COP?
      • Hope of little change: The next COP will be held at Glasgow, U.K. (in late 2020) and there may be little change in the outcomes.
      • The global political order may not alter much. The fact that we live in an unequal and unjust world is not going to change either.
    • What else can happen on the global level?
      • Right leader: The right political leaders could nudge action in a new direction.
      • Green New Deal could pass: Younger members could be elected to the U.S. Congress and the Green New Deal could pass sometime in 2021.
      • Growing activism: In the meantime, climate activism is increasing awareness and having some success in removing insurance and financial support for fossil fuel companies. But these kinds of changes will occur slowly.
      • Participation of other stakeholders at next COP: At least one expert has called for a parallel action COP at future summits where sub-state actors, civil society groups, non-governmental organisations and academics can share ideas and nudge action.

    The chance for India to develop climate change action at State and Sub-state level

    • Chance to develop climate change action: The stalemate at the global level offers India the opportunity to focus earnestly on developing its climate change action at State and sub-State levels.
      • Peripheral status of climate change: In the states, the environment and climate continue to be relegated to peripheral status.
      • Damage to the environment: This neglect has led to the destruction of ecosystems, forests, water-bodies and biodiversity.
      • Vulnerability and economic costs of the neglect: Numerous studies have shown the high economic and ecological costs and loss of lives due to extreme events.
      • We do not need more data to stimulate action. As is also well recognised, India is extremely vulnerable to the effects of warming.

    Progress made by the states so far

    • The first round of SAPCCs: With support from bilateral agencies, States initially took different approaches in the first round of State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs).
      • Some of them set up separate climate change cells while some collaborated with academic institutions.
      • A few produced detailed action plans while others developed strategy documents.
      • Still, others integrated improvements in energy efficiency (contributing to reducing emissions), while almost all focused on adaptation.
    • The synergy between climate change and development:
      • Attention to climate change offers co-benefits to India for development. For instance-
      • Efficiency reduces pollution: Improving energy efficiency in industry reduces costs and local pollution.
      • Transport and congestion: Improving public transport reduces congestion, pollution and improves access.
      • Natural farming and fertilisers: Using natural farming methods reduces fossil fuel-based fertilizers, improves soil health and biodiversity.
      • These examples show that there are synergies in the steps to be taken for good development and climate change.
    • Next round of SAPCCs and strategies
      • The next round of the SAPCCs is being drawn up, under recommendations from the Centre.
      • Where should be the focus? The focus ought to be on integrating the response to climate change with the development plan in different departments.
      • States together to contribute NDCs: Since the States together are to deliver the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) that India has promised, it means that they require guidance from the Centre.
      • Unfortunately, most State government departments are handling climate change as a fringe issue and do not seem to recognise its urgency.

    Integration of various sectors for climate action

    • Identification of sectors: Line departments for government schemes and programmes in key development sectors, such as agriculture, transport and water, should be identified for carefully integrating actions that respond to climate change.
      • Integration at district level: This integration should also take place at district and sub-district levels. But only a demonstration of its success in some departments would show how this can be done.
      • The realisation of climate as an important issue: But first and foremost, States need to get the signal that climate is an urgent issue.
    • Funds for implementing SAPCCs
      • How funds for implementing SAPCCs will be obtained is not clear.
      • There will not be enough from the Green Climate Fund, Adaptation Fund and bilateral agencies to support all States unless new sources are found.
      • Use of coal cess: The coal cess in India is a good initiative, and as others have pointed out, could be used for environment and climate-related expenses.
      • Alternative sources: Alternative sources from high emissions’ industries and practices would be an option, but still probably insufficient.

    Way forward

    • Performance analysis of first SAPCCs: There is also needs to be a clear analysis of how the first round of action plans fared.
      • Challenges and performance: What were the challenges and how did they perform?
      • Reasons for success and failures: Which approaches and projects were successful and ought to be scaled up and what lessons do the failures offer?
      • Finally, what institutional structure works best?
    • Need for the greenhouse gas inventory: The country needs reliable greenhouse gas inventories.
      • Individual research groups and the civil society initiative, GHG Platform India, have been producing such inventories.
      • Such inventories would be useful in synchronising and co-ordinating State and Central mitigation programmes.
    • Programmes with longer timelines: States must also develop their programmes with longer timelines.
      • With mid-course correction based on lessons and successes that can be integrated into the next stage of the plan.
      • If the second round of SAPCCs were treated as an entry point to long-term development strategy, the States and the country would be better prepared for climate change.
    • Ultimately, climate should be part and parcel of all thinking on development.

     

  • Carbon Disclosure Project Report 2019

    The Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) 2019 report was recently published.

    Carbon Disclosure Project

    • CDP is published by the Global Reporting Initiative.
    • It is aimed at measuring the carbon reduction activities undertaken by different companies and firms operating in various countries across the globe.
    • The report surveys corporate commitments to science-based targets (SBT) and evaluates the climate change risk that they are exposed to.

    India’s performance

    • India secured the 5th spot on the project report.
    • The CDP Report 2019 said that a total of 58 companies shared details about the environment-related activities undertaken by them in this year.
    • The report also claims that over 98 percent of top Indian companies have formed some type or committee or group within its organization to drive and address climate-related issues.
    • The report also showcased the changing mind-set of India Inc with nearly all major companies setting up some form of oversight to evaluate climate risk.

    Global scenario

    • The US topped the annual CDP report with 135 companies disclosing their climate-related activities, followed by Japan in the second position with 83 companies and the UK in the third position with 78 countries.
    • While France was placed fourth with 51 companies disclosing their details, India was placed fifth with 38 companies committing to the science-based targets.
    • In 2018, India had only 25 companies committing to the SBTs.
    • India is followed by Germany and Sweden with 30 and 27 companies respectively, while Switzerland and Spain had 23 and 22 companies respectively.
    • Netherlands was listed 10th on the list with 18 companies committing to SBT initiatives.

    Importance

    • India was ranked 5th, ahead of Germany and Sweden.
    • India is the first developing economy with a maximum number of companies committing to the science-based targets.

  • [op-ed of the day] Electricity 4.0: The future of power in the age of climate change

    Context

    Significance of electricity in our life

    • Interconnecting economic prosperity: Electrical energy is a juncture that inter-connects economic prosperity.
      • Amplifies social equity.
      • Ushers in a liveable environment for us.
      • No development in its true sense is possible if we leave aside energy and specifically sustainable energy.
      • It is almost indispensable for holistic and sustainable progress of any kind.

    Burning of fossil fuel and climate change

    • Singular reliance on fossil fuel: Ever since the industrial revolution, development has almost singularly relied on the burning of fossil fuels, emitting huge volumes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
      • 41% of electricity from coal: As per data by the World Coal Association, a little over 41% of all electricity generated is produced from coal.
      • Problems with coal: Burning coal for electricity production leads to-
      • High level of hazardous carbon emissions.
      • Rising levels of pollution: water and air pollution during mining and air pollution during burning.
      • Working condition of miners: Added to the disastrous working conditions of miners, coal cannot be regarded as a sustainable source of energy.
    • Global warming and climate change: Despite increasing awareness, not much is being done to mitigate climate change.
      • Rise over 1.5oC and Consequences: IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has reiterated that unless global temperature rise is not kept within 1.5 degrees Celsius, natural and human systems will be irreparably damaged.
      • Rise over  2o  C and Consequences: Even a slight increase in atmospheric temperature by 2 degrees Celsius will result in a substantial rise in sea levels.
      • Consequences for human life: The rise in sea level would, in turn, translate into a whopping 10 million more people going homeless and another 50% people facing severe water scarcity.
    • The aim of becoming carbon neutral: To join the efforts, many global public and private stakeholders have pledged their allegiance into becoming net-zero carbon emitters.
      • But we are still far from achieving our objectives, as the IEA (International Energy Agency) recently reported that the Earth’s temperature rise will range between 1.8 degrees Celsius and 2.7 degrees Celsius soon.

    Sustainable energy as a necessity

    • Energy efficiency and energy management: As the world is evolving into an interconnected form of world-of work, life and more-energy efficiency and energy management have slowly come to be a central driving force.
      • Sustainable energy a necessity: In order to power smart homes, industries, hospitals and other mission-critical operations, sustainable energy is no more a matter of choice, but of necessity.
      • IoT to help achieve energy efficiency: Technology adoptions like IoT and connected services can greatly enhance energy efficiencies and many global behemoths are coming to terms with this reality.
      • Demand for an alternative source of energy: Environmental factors, coupled with rising costs and stringent regulatory guidelines, are adding to the demand for alternative sources of energy.
      • Alternate as well as sustainable: The alternate sources are expected not only to satiate the growing consumption needs but are proven to be a sustainable option in the long run.

    Electricity 4.0

    • Electricity 4.0: That is, sustainable methods of energy generation and efficient and cost-effective usage of produced energy.
      • The sustainable energy need of the sustainable future: To lay the foundation stone for a sustainable future, there is a critical need to investigate how we create and consume energy.
      • The answer lies in renewables becoming the dominant source of power, globally.
    • A new form of energy mix: There is a growing need to build a new form of energy mix under Electricity 4.0, with renewable ways of electricity creation, at its very core. A new order where-
      • Electrical internet of things (EIOT).
      • Cloud computing.
      • Artificial intelligence.
      • And the tools of today’s digital era are fully leveraged to maximise energy efficiency.

    Way forward

    • Given that the major cause of global warming is Carbon Dioxide, so the first step to combat it would be-
    • Electrifying the planet: The augmented proliferation of energy-efficient, electricity-based equipments that are prevalent now, such as e-mobility, electrical heating, innovative applications such as electric aviation fleets can be one way to do that.
    • Scale up the production of renewable energy: The immediate need is to scale up the production of renewable electricity and build conducive public-policy frameworks to further this goal.
    • Adoption of digital technology: It is imperative to adopt digital technology in order to optimise the efficiency of our energy consumption and electrical networks. Digital connectivity, software and artificial intelligence can well be dubbed as the fulcrum that will support our transition toward Industry 4.0.
    • Concerted efforts from all stakeholders: To reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions or to promote energy decarbonisation, concerted efforts are required from all stakeholders – the community, regions, government and the private sector.

     

     

     

  •  [op-ed snap] Global warming puts forests, plantations in the country at risk

    Context

    Global warming, drought and El Niño may lead to increased forest fires.

    The success story of India

    • Reduced deforestation: India has succeeded in reducing deforestation to some extent through an effective Forest Conservation Act and large-scale afforestation programme.
      • Comparison with other countries: India performed better when compared with other forest-rich tropical countries such as Brazil, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
      • Without the Forest Conservation Act and its reasonably effective implementation, India would have lost significant extent of forest area.
    • Increased afforestation: India has also been implementing significant scale afforestation, though the rates of afforestation have declined recently.
      • Agro-forestry, involving raising fruit tree plantations contribute to some extent.
      • Commercial plantations of eucalyptus, casuarina, teak, poplar, etc., have been raised by farmers for commercial purposes.
      • The above steps have resulted in potentially reducing the pressure on natural forests.

    Need to measure ‘natural forest’

    • Increase in an area under forest: According to the latest biennial State of Forest Report (SFR) of the Forest Survey of India (FSI), an area under forests has been increasing.
    • Natural forests not specifically measured: It is not clear what percentage of increase in forest area is due to changes in natural forests which are generally rich in biodiversity.
      • The report doesn’t specify what percentage of change in area is due to commercial plantation and what percentage is contributed by horticulture or urban parks.
    • Need to define ‘natural forest’: What will be of most concern to forest and biodiversity conservation is to understand the status of natural forest and biodiversity.
      • India can use the same definition of forests but must estimate and report the area under natural forests and other forest plantation categories.
      • India needs to define ‘natural forests’ first, further, this would involve additional staff time and resources.
    • The resilience of natural forests to forest fires: Tropical forests rich in biodiversity are likely to be more resilient than monoculture dominated plantations or exotics.
      • Vulnerability to forest fires varies from forests to forests: Studies by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have shown that degraded forests, fragmented forests and biodiversity-poor forests are more vulnerable to climate change.

    Climate change and its impacts

    • IPCC reports on large scale loss: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports have repeatedly concluded that climate change will lead to large-scale loss of biodiversity, before the end of the current century or even earlier.
    • Modelling studies by IISc.: Preliminary modelling studies by Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have shown that about 20% of forests will be impacted by climate change.
      • No change to adapt: The modelling studies means that existing forest biodiversity and its structure and composition will not be able to adapt to the new climate and there could be mortality or forest dieback.
    • The threat of forest fires: Further, warming, drought and El Niño will lead to increased forest fires, and may even be favourable to forest pests.
      • Unfortunately, the models currently in use for assessing the impact of climate change are not suitable for the complex and highly diverse forest types that exist in India.

    Conclusions

    • Given that global warming will continue, India will have to brace itself to adapt to the impending impacts. In India, there is very limited research on climate change and its impacts on forests, putting our famed biodiversity-rich country status under threat.
    • India needs to realistically assess, monitor and model climate change and its impacts and be prepared to adapt to impending climate change.