💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (August Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

GS Paper: GS1-15.Geographical features and their location- Changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

  • In news: Haji Pir Pass

    Why in the News?

    The recent Pahalgam terror attack has revived debates on India’s 1966 decision to surrender the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan during Tashkent Agreement of 1966.

    This move is compared to the Soviet Union’s 1954 transfer of Crimea, which created lasting security challenges.

    About Haji Pir Pass:

    • The Haji Pir Pass is located in the Pir Panjal Range of Jammu and Kashmir, at an altitude of 2,637 meters (8,652 feet).
    • It connects Poonch in India to Rawalakot in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
    • Historically, it was a vital route for connecting Jammu to the Kashmir Valley before 1947, making it an essential part of India’s transportation network.
    • Post-partition, it became part of PoK and, during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, India recaptured it under Operation Bakshi.
    • However, it was returned to Pakistan following the Tashkent Agreement in 1966, a decision criticized by many experts.

    How Haji Pir Pass is a Chokepoint?

    • Strategic Military Route: The pass provides Pakistan with the ability to control and monitor the Kashmir Valley from a high-altitude position, serving as a key route for military logistics and infiltration.
    • Gateway for Infiltration: Historically, it has been used for militant infiltration into India, fuelling insurgency and instability in Kashmir.
    • Shortened Military Access: Retaining the pass would have reduced the distance between Poonch and Uri from 282 km to 56 km, improving India’s military logistics and rapid deployment.
    • Control over Key Terrain: Controlling the pass enables domination of the surrounding hills, limiting Pakistan’s ability to sustain military pressure and infiltration.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

    (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

     

  • Massive Earthquake hits Myanmar and Thailand

    Why in the News?

    A powerful 7.7 magnitude earthquake struck Myanmar, with its epicentre near Mandalay, the country’s second-largest city.

    Massive Earthquake hits Myanmar and Thailand

    What caused the Earthquake in Myanmar?

    • Myanmar is situated between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, which makes the region seismically active.
      • The Sagaing Fault, running from north to south through Myanmar, marks the boundary of these plates.
      • It is an active fault line that has caused significant earthquakes in the past, including a 7.9 magnitude earthquake in 1912 and a 6.9 magnitude earthquake in 2016.
    • The Indian Plate was moving northward along the Sagaing Fault relative to the Eurasian Plate. The friction and stress built up along this fault led to a sudden release of energy, resulting in the earthquake.
    • The earthquake’s epicentres was located 17.2 km from Mandalay, Myanmar’s second-largest city, at a depth of just 10 km.

    Why are Shallow Earthquakes more destructive?

    • Proximity to the Surface: Shallow earthquakes (less than 70 km deep) cause intense shaking. For example, the Myanmar earthquake occurred at 10 km, leading to rapid, forceful seismic waves and extensive damage.
    • Energy Release: Shallow earthquakes retain more energy in seismic waves, causing stronger surface shaking and greater destruction.
    • Higher Intensity: Shallow quakes produce higher intensity shaking, resulting in more structural damage compared to deeper quakes, where seismic waves lose energy.
    • Aftershocks: Shallow earthquakes often lead to more intense aftershocks, further damaging already weakened structures. The Myanmar earthquake had aftershocks, including one with magnitude 6.4.

    Back2Basics: Earthquake and Related Terminologies

    • Earthquake is a sudden shaking of the ground caused by energy release from tectonic plate movements or volcanic activity, generating seismic waves.
    • Key Terminologies:
      • Focus (Hypocenter): The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates, deep beneath the surface.
      • Epicenter: The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus, usually the most affected area.
      • Seismic Waves: Waves that carry the energy released during an earthquake and cause ground shaking.
      • Fault: A crack or fracture in the Earth’s crust where movement occurs, often causing earthquakes.
      • Magnitude: A measure of the earthquake’s size or energy, commonly measured on the Richter scale.
      • Intensity: The strength of shaking at specific locations, measured by the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale.

    Types of Earthquake Waves:

    • Body Waves: Travel through the Earth’s interior, detected first by seismographs.
      • Primary Waves (P-Waves): Fastest, compression waves that move through solids and liquids.
      • Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Shear waves, slower than P-waves, that move through solids only.
    • Surface Waves: Travel along the Earth’s surface, slower but cause more damage.
      • Love Waves: Move side-to-side horizontally, causing significant damage.
      • Rayleigh Waves: Cause elliptical ground motion, similar to ocean waves, very destructive.

     

    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

    1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

    2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propagation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • 50 Years of Farakka Barrage

    Why in the News?

    It was nearly 50 years ago, that India had completed the construction of the Farakka Barrage.

    About Farakka Barrage

    • The Farakka Barrage is located on the Ganges River in Murshidabad District, West Bengal, India, about 18 km from the Bangladesh border.
    • The barrage measures 2,304 meters (7,559 feet) in length.
    • Its construction began in 1962 and was completed in 1970 at a cost of 1 billion dollars. It became operational on April 21, 1975.
    • The Feeder Canal is approximately 42 km long, connecting the barrage to the Hooghly River.
    • Purpose:
      • It diverts water to the Hooghly River to maintain the navigability of Kolkata Port and to flush out sediment from the river.
      • It diverts 1,800 cubic meters per second of water from the Ganges.
    • Construction Details:
      • Built by Hindustan Construction Company, it consists of 109 gates, with 108 over the river and one over low-lying land as a precaution.
      • Supports the Farakka Super Thermal Power Station.
    • The 1996 Ganges Water Sharing Treaty ensured fair water distribution:
      • 70,000 cusecs or less: 50% to both India and Bangladesh.
      • 70,000 – 75,000 cusecs: India gets 35,000 cusecs, Bangladesh the balance.
      • 75,000 cusecs or more: India receives 40,000 cusecs, Bangladesh gets the remainder.

    Significance in India-Bangladesh Water Sharing:

    • The Farakka Barrage is crucial for irrigation in West Bengal, supporting agriculture during the dry season.
    • Bangladesh, particularly Mongla and Khulna, depends on the Ganges for water.
    • The diverted water has led to water scarcity, impacting agriculture, fisheries, and livelihoods in Bangladesh, causing diplomatic tensions.
    • This treaty ensures equitable distribution and guarantees a minimum flow for Bangladesh.
    • Issues: 
      • Water diversion has led to salinization and soil degradation in Bangladesh, affecting agriculture and freshwater supplies.
      • Biodiversity loss and damage to the Sundarbans mangrove forests have been significant environmental impacts.
    [UPSC 1997] The canal-carrying capacity of Farakka is:

    (a) 40,000 cusecs (b) 60,000 cusecs (c) 80,000 cusecs (d) 100,000 cusecs

     

  • Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have found that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is slowing due to melting ice sheets. By 2050, it may weaken by 20%, affecting global climate, ocean circulation, and marine ecosystems.

    What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)?

    • The ACC is the strongest and largest ocean current on Earth.
    • It flows continuously from west to east around Antarctica, acting as a boundary between the Southern Ocean and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
    • It flows from west to east, driven by the westerly winds and the Coriolis effect, creating a loop that completely encircles Antarctica.
    • The ACC interacts with several regional currents, such as the Brazil Current, East Australian Current, and Agulhas Current.
    • It is influenced by both westerly winds and polar easterlies, which affect its strength and flow patterns.
    • Key features of the ACC:
      • It is five times stronger than the Gulf Stream and transports 130 million cubic meters of water per second.
      • It plays a crucial role in global heat and nutrient distribution, influencing climate patterns worldwide.
      • It prevents warmer northern waters from reaching Antarctica, helping to preserve the region’s ice sheets.
      • The ACC drives the global conveyor belt, regulating deep ocean currents and heat flow.
      • Its upwelling of nutrient-rich waters sustains Antarctic marine life, including krill, whales, and penguins.

    Why does Antarctic Ice Melt affect ACC?

    • Freshwater Dilution: Melting ice lowers salinity, weakening ocean density gradients that drive the ACC.
    • Slower Heat Exchange: Reduced current strength disrupts global heat distribution, leading to stronger storms and rising sea levels.

    Key Findings of the New Research

    A study by the University of Melbourne and NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, published in Environmental Research Letters, reveals:

    • ACC could slow by 20% by 2050 due to melting ice sheets.
    • Disrupted global climate as a weaker ACC reduces heat distribution, carbon absorption, and weather stability. 
    • Antarctic ecosystem at risk, with invasive species threatening penguins, krill, and whales.
    • Supercomputer simulations confirm that deep ocean circulation is slowing, worsening climate instability.
    • Reducing carbon emissions is crucial to prevent further ice melting and ACC weakening.

    PYQ:

    [2012] Consider the following factors:

    1. Rotation of the Earth

    2. Air pressure and wind

    3. Density of ocean water

    4. Revolution of the Earth

    Which of the above factors influence the ocean currents?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1, 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 4

    (d) 2, 3 and 4

     

  • In news: Darien Gap

    Why in the News?

    The illegal journey into the US often involves dangerous crossings through multiple countries, including the treacherous Darien Gap – a vast, roadless jungle that connects Colombia and Panama.

    In news: Darien Gap

    What is the Darien Gap?

    • The Darien Gap is a 97-km stretch of dense rainforest, swamps, and mountains that forms the only break in the Pan-American Highway, which otherwise runs from Alaska to Argentina.
    • Due to its extreme terrain, harsh climate, and lack of infrastructure, the region has remained largely impenetrable.
    • However, in recent years, it has become a major migration route, as thousands of people attempt to cross it in hopes of reaching North America.
    • Geographical Features:
      • Location: Forms the border between Panama and Colombia.
      • Terrain: Consists of steep mountains, muddy swamps, fast-flowing rivers, and dense rainforests, making travel extremely difficult.
      • Climate: Has a hot, humid, and rainy environment with limited access to food and water.

    Geo-Political Significance:

    • Migration Crisis: Over 520,000 migrants crossed in 2023, with over 300,000 crossings in early 2024.
    • ‘Donkey Route’: Many migrants, including Indians, Venezuelans, Haitians, and Pakistanis, travel through Central American nations like Panama, Costa Rica, and Guatemala before reaching Mexico.
    • Criminal Activity: The region is controlled by smuggling networks, drug cartels, and armed groups, who demand money, rob migrants, or subject them to violence.
    • Humanitarian Concerns: Reports of sexual assaults, deaths, and disappearances are increasing, with overcrowded shelters and severe shortages of food, water, and medical aid.

    PYQ:

    [2015] The area known as ‘Golan Heights’ sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events is related to:

    (a) Central Asia

    (b) Middle East

    (c) South-East Asia

    (d) Central Africa

  • In news: Pangsau Pass

    Why in the News?

    The Pangsau Pass International Festival returns to Nampong, Arunachal Pradesh, from January 20-22, 2025, celebrating India-Myanmar cultural ties and heritage after a four-year gap.

    In news: Pangsau Pass

    About Pangsau Pass

    • Pangsau Pass is a vital mountain pass located on the India-Myanmar border, connecting the Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh, India, with the Sagaing Region of Myanmar.
    • Situated in the Patkai Hills, it lies at an altitude of approximately 3,727 feet (1,136 meters) above sea level.
    • Often referred to as “Hell Pass” due to its challenging terrain and dense forests, it serves as both a geographical marvel and a historical landmark.

    Geographical Significance:

    • Strategic Location: Acts as a natural link between India and Myanmar, facilitating cross-border trade and cultural exchanges.
    • Scenic and Biodiverse: Attractions include the Lake of No Return, a mythical body of water in Myanmar associated with World War II legends.
    • Tourism Potential: The Pangsau Pass International Festival showcases the region’s tribal cultures, boosting local economies and promoting tourism.

    Historical/Political Significance

    • The pass was a crucial part of the Stillwell Road (Ledo Road), constructed during World War II to connect India to China through Myanmar.
    • It played a pivotal role in the China-Burma-India Theater, facilitating supply lines for Allied forces.
    • It serves as a gateway for implementing India’s Act East Policy, aimed at strengthening ties with Southeast Asia.
    • It facilitates cross-border trade and cultural exchanges, fostering economic and diplomatic relationships between India and Myanmar.
    • It enables communities on both sides of the border to engage under the Free Movement Regime (FMR) (now suspended), allowing visitors to travel up to 16 km into each other’s territories without visas or passports.

    PYQ:

    [2012] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following:

    1. Deep gorges

    2. U-turn river courses

    3. Parallel mountain ranges

    4. Steep gradients causing land-sliding

    Which of the above can be said to be the evidences for Himalayas being young fold mountains?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1, 2 and 4 only

    (c) 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • In news: Pangong Lake

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Army has installed a statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj on the bank of Pangong lake at an altitude of 14,300 feet, a region that is close to the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China in the eastern Ladakh sector.

    About Pangong Lake (Pangong Tso)

    • Its name is derived from the Tibetan term “Pangong Tso,” meaning “high grassland lake.” It is an endorheic (landlocked) lake with no outflow.
    • Location & Size:
      • Spans 134 km, divided between India (1/3) and the Tibetan Autonomous Region (2/3).
      • Situated at an altitude of 4,350 meters, covers 604 sq. km, and is 5 km wide at its broadest point.
    • Water & Climate:
      • Brackish water that completely freezes in winter.
      • The lake’s color shifts with sunlight and weather, displaying shades of blue, green, and red.
    • Wildlife: Acts as a breeding ground for Bar-Headed Geese, Brahmini Ducks, and Radix freshwater snails.
    • Strategic Importance: Located in the Chushul approach, a key route for potential Chinese offensives, and was a major site of conflict during the 1962 war.

    Political Features:In news: Pangong Lake

    • Border & Control: Lies on the Ladakh-China border, with the Line of Actual Control (LAC) passing through it.
    • Contested Terrain: The northern bank is a hotspot due to differing boundary perceptions; China has built roads highlighting the lake’s strategic value.
    • 1999 Incident: During Operation Vijay, China constructed a 5-km road inside Indian territory.
    • 2020 Standoff:
      • Began on May 5, 2020, following a clash in the Pangong Lake area.
      • Disengagement on the north and south banks concluded in 2021.
      • On October 21, 2024, India and China resolved the final friction points (Demchok, Depsang), ending a four-and-half-year border standoff.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the

    (a) East of Aksai Chin

    (b) East of Leh

    (c) North of Gilgit

    (d) North of Nubra Valley

  • Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) launched

    Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) launched

    Why in the News?

    PM Modi laid the foundation stone of the Ken-Betwa River Linking National Project, the first project under the National Perspective Plan (NPP) for interlinking rivers, conceptualized in 1980. The project would submerge over 10 per cent of the core area of the Panna Tiger Reserve.

    About the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP):

    About
    • Objective: Transfer water from the Ken River to the Betwa River, both tributaries of the Yamuna.
      • Ken-Betwa Canal: Envisages a 221 km canal (including a 2-km tunnel) for water diversion.
      • Submergence area: Jhansi, Banda, Lalitpur and Mahoba districts of UP and Tikamgarh, Panna and Chhatarpur districts of MP.
    • It’s the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan (1980).
    • Targeted completion within 8 years, as per the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
    Key Components
    • It will irrigate 10.62 lakh ha (8.11 lakh ha in MP and 2.51 lakh ha in UP) and provide drinking water to ~62 lakh people.
    • Power Generation: Aims for 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar power.

    Phases:

    1. Phase-I: Construction of Daudhan Dam, related tunnels, canal, and powerhouses.
    2. Phase-II: Building of Lower Orr Dam, Bina Complex Project, and Kotha Barrage.

    Daudhan Dam:

      • Foundation stone laid in December 2024 by PM Narendra Modi.
      • 2,031 m in length and 77 m in height, submerging ~9,000 ha across 10 villages.
    • Construction contract awarded to NCC Ltd.
    Geographical Features of Ken and Betwa River Ken River: Rises near Ahirgawan in Madhya Pradesh, flows through Bundelkhand, joins the Yamuna near Chilla village in UP.

    Betwa River: Originates in the Vindhya Range (near Hoshangabad, MP), also flows through Bundelkhand, and meets the Yamuna at Hamirpur (UP).

    • Both rivers traverse hilly and plateau regions of Bundelkhand, often facing drought-like conditions.
    • Both are highly seasonal; flows depend largely on monsoon rainfall.
    Significance
    • Water Scarcity Mitigation: Aims to alleviate drought-like conditions in Bundelkhand by ensuring year-round irrigation.
    • Enhanced Agriculture: 10.62 lakh ha of farmland to benefit, improving crop yields and farm income.
    • Drinking Water Supply: Targets ~62 lakh people in MP and UP, improving public health.
    • Energy Generation: A total of 130 MW (103 MW hydropower + 27 MW solar), boosting renewable energy capacity in rural areas.
    • Bundelkhand Development: Expected to spur socio-economic growth, reduce rural distress and migration, and aid industrial expansion.
    • Template for Future Projects: As the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan, its success could pave the way for additional river-linking schemes nationwide.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine.

  • Salt Chimneys discovered in the Dead Sea

    Salt Chimneys discovered in the Dead Sea

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have identified unique salt chimneys on the Dead Sea floor.

    Key facts about the Dead Sea:

    Details
    Location • Located between Jordan and Israel, with the eastern shore in Jordan and the western shore in Israel.
    • The southern half of the western shore belongs to Israel, and the northern half is in the West Bank.• Divided by Al-Lisan peninsula into two basins: the northern basin is deep (400 m), and the southern basin is shallow (< 3 m).
    Geographical Features • 430.5 meters below sea level, the Earth’s lowest land-based feature.
    • Length: 50 km, Width: 15 km at its widest point.
    • Surrounded by the Judaea hills (west) and Transjordanian plateaus (east).
    Salinity and Density • Salinity: 34.2%, almost ten times saltier than ordinary seawater, making it the fourth saltiest water body in the world.
    • Density: 1.240 kg/L, which allows people to float easily.
    Inlets and Outlets • Main inlet: Jordan River.
    • No outlet, water loss occurs primarily through evaporation.
    • High salinity and harsh climate result in no life except for algae and microorganisms.

     

    About the Salt Chimneys 

    • Salt chimneys are tall, chimney-like structures made of crystallized salt, recently discovered on the Dead Sea floor.
    • They are found by researchers from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) during an underwater survey.
    • These chimneys range from 1 to over 7m in height.
    • Formation Process:
      • Groundwater from surrounding aquifers flows through old salt deposits around the Dead Sea basin, dissolving halite (salt) and carrying it as brine.
      • Despite being saline, the brine is less dense than the Dead Sea water due to its high salinity, causing it to rise as a plume from the lake bed.
      • When this brine contacts the colder Dead Sea water, it rapidly crystallizes, forming chimney structures that can grow several centimeters in height each day.

    Potential Role in Sinkhole Forecasting

    • Thousands of sinkholes have appeared near the Dead Sea in recent decades; understanding chimney formation may aid in preventing future collapses in vulnerable areas.
    • Researchers have linked the formation of salt chimneys to underground cavities, which are often the precursors to sinkholes.
    • The location of these chimneys may help predict areas at high risk for sinkhole formation, offering a way to monitor and mitigate potential hazards.

  • Barak River

    Why in the News?

    Police found dead bodies floating in the Barak River (inflicted due to Manipur Violence).

    About the Barak River:

    Details
    Geographical Location • Originates from Japvo mountain in Manipur hills at 3,015 m altitude.
    • Flows south, forming the border between Assam and Manipur up to Jirimat.
    • Flows for 524 km in India, and then enters Bangladesh as Surma and Kushiyara, later becoming Meghna River.• The river is navigable in parts, with National Waterway 6 (121 km).
    Physical Features • Length: 564 km in total, with 524 km in India.
    • Drainage area in India: 41,157 sq. km (1.38% of India’s total area).
    • Tributaries: Jiri, Dhaleswari, Singla, Longai, Sonai, and Katakhal.
    Flora and Fauna/Important Sites • Fauna: Home to over 2,000 species of fish and rare creatures like the Siamese crocodile, susu dolphin, smooth-coated otter, and black mugger crocodile.
    • Flora: Includes Varzea forest, Los llamjao, tidal forests (mangroves), Pats (flat-topped table mountains), and large tropical swamps.
    • Wetlands support farming and biodiversity.
    • Hydropower projects: Tipaimukh Dam, Tista Champamati, Dhansiri Barrages.
    • Affected by flooding and soil erosion, especially during monsoon.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following rivers:

    1. Barak

    2. Lohit

    3. Subansiri

    Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3