💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

GS Paper: GS1-14.Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc.,

  • What is Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

    carbon

    The Indian government will be analyzing how the European Union’s (EU’s) proposed carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM) will affect the Indian industry. The CBAM is set to start from October this year.

    Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

    Proposed by European Union (EU)
    Purpose To reduce carbon emissions from imported goods and prevent competitive disadvantage against countries with weaker environmental regulations
    Objectives Reduce carbon emissions from imported goods

    Promote a level playing field between the EU and its trading partners

    Protect EU companies that have invested in green technologies

     

    How does CBAM work?

    Coverage Applies to imported goods that are carbon-intensive
    Integration Covered by the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS), which currently covers industries like power generation, steel, and cement
    Implementation CBAM taxes would be imposed on the carbon content of imported goods at the border, and the tax rates would be based on the carbon price in the EU ETS
    Exemptions Possible exemptions for countries that have implemented comparable carbon pricing systems
    Revenue Use Revenue generated from CBAM taxes could be used to fund the EU’s climate objectives, such as financing climate-friendly investments and supporting developing countries’ climate efforts

     

    Who will be affected by CBAM?

    Details
    Countries Non-EU countries, including India, that export carbon-intensive goods to the EU
    Items Initially covers iron and steel, cement, aluminium, fertilisers, and electric energy production
    Expansion The scope of the CBAM may expand to other sectors in the future

    Advantages of CBAM

    • Encourages non-EU countries to adopt more stringent environmental regulations, reducing global carbon emissions.
    • Prevents carbon leakage by discouraging companies from relocating to countries with weaker environmental regulations.
    • Generates revenue that could be used to support EU climate policies.

    Challenges with CBAM

    • Difficulty in accurately measuring the carbon emissions of imported goods, especially for countries without comprehensive carbon accounting systems.
    • Potential for trade tensions with the EU’s trading partners, especially if other countries implement retaliatory measures.

    Conclusion

    • The CBAM is a proposed policy by the EU to reduce carbon emissions from imported goods and to promote a level playing field between the EU and its trading partners.
    • Although the CBAM has its challenges, it has the potential to incentivize non-EU countries to adopt more stringent environmental regulations and reduce global carbon emissions.

     

    Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your personal mentor for UPSC 2024 | Schedule your FREE session and get Prelims prep Toolkit!

  • Oceans absorb 90% of human-induced planet warming: Study

    ocean

    The study published in the journal Earth System Science Data estimates that almost 90% of the warming that has occurred in the last 50 years has been absorbed by the ocean, with the remaining heat absorbed by the land, cryosphere and atmosphere.

    Earth’s energy balance: A quick recap

    ocean

    • It is the balance between the amount of energy that Earth receives from the Sun and the amount of energy that Earth radiates back into space.
    • It is also known as the radiation budget.
    • The energy from the Sun that Earth receives is mainly in the form of visible light and ultraviolet radiation.
    • This energy is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and atmosphere, which then radiate it back into space in the form of infrared radiation.
    • The balance between incoming and outgoing radiation is crucial for maintaining the Earth’s temperature and climate.
    • Any imbalance between the two can lead to global warming and climate change.
    Description
    Total incoming solar radiation Approximately 342 W/m² reaches Earth’s atmosphere
    Albedo About 30% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space
    Greenhouse effect Remaining 70% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by Earth’s surface and atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect
    Atmospheric heat Atmosphere contains only 0.001% of Earth’s heat energy, but is crucial in regulating heat budget

     

    Key highlights of the Study: Heat Accumulation

    heat

    • The study estimates that approximately 381 zettajoules (ZJ) of heat accumulated on the planet from 1971-2020 due to anthropogenic emissions.
    • This roughly equals a heating rate of approximately 0.48 watts per square metre (Earth Energy Imbalance or EEI). EEI is the difference between incoming and outgoing solar radiation.
    • According to the study, about 89% of the accumulated heat is stored in the ocean, 6% on land, a percent in the atmosphere, and about 4% available for melting the cryosphere.

    Implications

    (1) Land Heat Accumulation

    • Heat accumulated on land drives up ground surface temperatures, which may increase soil respiration, releasing carbon dioxide in the process.
    • Higher soil respiration will likely decrease soil water, depending on climatic and meteorological conditions and factors.

    (2) Inland Water Bodies and Permafrost Thawing

    • Heat storage within inland water bodies has increased to roughly 0.2 ZJ since 1960. For permafrost thawing, it was about 2 ZJ.
    • The accumulation of heat in inland water increases lake water temperatures, making conditions ripe for algal blooms.
    • Permafrost heat content could inject methane and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the researchers warned.

    (3) Ocean and Troposphere heating

    • The upper ocean (0-300 and 0-700 meters depth) has taken up a major fraction of heat, according to the new estimates.
    • During 2006-2020, ocean warming rates for the 0-2,000 meters depth reached record rates of roughly 1.03 watts per square meter.
    • The troposphere is also warming up due to increased heat accumulation.

    (4) Cryosphere heating

    • The cryosphere – the frozen water part of the Earth system – gained roughly 14 ZJ of heat from 1971-2020.
    • Half of the uptake triggered the melting of grounded ice, while the remaining half is linked to the melting of floating ice.
    • The Antarctic Ice Sheet contributed about 33% to the total cryosphere heat gain, while Arctic sea ice stood second, having contributed 26%.

     

    Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your personal mentor for UPSC 2024 | Schedule your FREE session and get Prelims prep Toolkit!

  • Heatwaves in India: Increasing Frequency Needs Range of Measures to Mitigate

    Heatwave

    Central Idea

    • India is facing an increasing heatwave due to climate change, leading to significant agricultural crop losses, urban unlivability and reduced labour productivity. India need to take range of measures to mitigate the problem, such as expanding green cover, upgrading urban building standards, embracing public transportation, and improving waste segregation and management.

    What is Heat wave?

    • A heatwave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.
    • Heatwaves usually last for several days or weeks and can occur in both dry and humid climates.
    • They are characterized by temperatures that are significantly higher than the average for a particular region during that time of year. This is because climate change is causing a rise in global temperatures. As the planet heats up, it leads to more extreme weather events, such as heat waves. Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.

    Frequency of Heatwaves in India

    • Increase in frequency and intensity: India has been witnessing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves in recent years.
    • For instance: In April and May 2022, around 350 million Indians were exposed to strong heat stress. On an average, five-six heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
    • Rise in summer temperatures as well as winter temperature: Summer temperatures have risen by an average of 0.5-0.9°C across districts in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan between 1990 and 2019. In addition, around 54% of India’s districts have seen a similar rise in winter temperatures.
    • Temperature rise projection: It is expected that between 2021 and 2050, the maximum temperature will rise by 2-3.5°C in 100 districts and by 1.5–2°C in around 455 districts. Winter temperatures will also rise between 1°C and 1.5°C in around 485 districts

    heatwave

    Fact for prelims: Urban Heat Island Effect

    • High temperature in Urabn areas: The urban heat island effect is a phenomenon in which urban areas experience higher temperatures than the surrounding rural areas.
    • For instance: Cities in India are beset with the urban heat island effect, with temperatures 4-12°C higher than rural outlying areas.
    • Human activities are primary reason: This is primarily caused by human activities such as transportation, industrial processes, and energy consumption, which release heat and pollutants into the atmosphere.
    • Urab landscape made up of concrete absorbs more heat: The urban landscape, with its large amounts of concrete and asphalt, also absorbs and retains more heat than natural surfaces such as forests and grasslands.
    • Reduced vegetation is a contributing factor: Additionally, reduced vegetation and tree cover in urban areas contribute to the urban heat island effect, as plants help to cool the environment through evapotranspiration.
    • Negative impact: The urban heat island effect can have negative impacts on human health, as well as on energy consumption, air and water quality, and ecological systems.

    heatwave

    The Socio-economic impact of heat waves

    • Health: Heatwaves can cause heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat stroke, leading to hospitalization and death. People working outdoors, such as farmers, construction workers, and street vendors, are particularly vulnerable. The elderly, children, and people with pre-existing health conditions are also at a higher risk of heat-related illnesses.
    • Labor productivity: High temperatures reduce work capacity and productivity, especially for outdoor workers. This can lead to income loss and lower economic growth.
    • For instance: For labourers doing heavy work, heat exposure leads to a loss of 162 hours per year, as per one study. A rise in temperatures directly impacts labour productivity. About 50% of India’s workforce is estimated to be exposed to heat during their working hours. This includes marginal farmers, labourers at construction sites and street vendors parlaying their produce on the streets; increasingly, even gig economy workers are affected.
    • Agriculture: Heatwaves can damage crops and livestock, leading to reduced yields and income loss for farmers. High temperatures and low soil moisture can also lead to drought and water scarcity, which can further exacerbate the agricultural impact.
    • For example: 90% of India’s cumin production is from Gujarat and Rajasthan. The recent weather variability has destroyed the majority of the cumin crop in Rajasthan. From agricultural crop losses, it is a short step towards drought and higher mortality.
    • Energy demand: During heatwaves, the demand for electricity and other forms of cooling increases, leading to power outages and blackouts. This can affect businesses, hospitals, and other critical infrastructure.
    • Migration: Heatwaves can lead to migration as people seek cooler areas or better living conditions. This can strain resources in the destination areas and lead to social tensions.

    Heatwave

    Ways to Mitigate the Problem

    • Greening could help mitigate part of the problem: Ideally, for every urban citizen in India should have at least seven trees in the urban landscape. However, many urban localities even in leafy Delhi fall short. Development plans for Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities can set up a mandate to increase urban surface area that is permeable, while pushing to increase the density and area of urban forests.
    • Expanding and restoring wetlands: Expanding wetlands and restoring dead and decaying ponds/lakes may also help ensure ecological functioning along with reducing urban heat.
    • Reducing the urban heat island effect: This requires a push for greater usage of permeable materials in civic infrastructure and residential construction and enhancing natural landscapes in urban areas. Urban layouts such as brick jalis for ventilation and terracotta tiles to allow hot air to escape, and curbs on anthropogenic heat emissions from vehicles, factories, etc. may be considered.
    • Avoiding usage of heat absorbent material: Urban building standards should be upgraded to avoid usage of heat-absorbent galvanized iron and metal roof sheets.
    • Using cleaner cooking fuels: Using cleaner cooking fuels will reduce indoor air pollution, which may also help reduce urban heat.
    • Increasing natural vegetation: Streets with low ventilation may need further expansion, or an increase in natural vegetation
    • Voluntary and other measures: Other measures can also be considered such as, from embracing public transportation, to reducing personal vehicle usage and, most importantly, reducing the size of landfills. A push for waste segregation, along with solid waste management at source, can help.
    • Improving our forecasting ability: India needs to improve our forecasting ability, including the potential impact of heat on food production.
    • Improving economic models: Current econometric models associated with food inflation primarily look at the variability in the monsoon, minimum support prices and vegetable prices. India needs to add local heat trends to the mix as well, given the impact of heat on food production, storage and sale.
    • Detailed management policies: We need detailed policies and guidelines on weather variability and urban heat management at the State, district, city and municipality ward levels.

    Value addition box: The Chandigarh Model, a template to build climate-responsive architecture

    • Natural green belts: The city was set up by the foothills of the Shivaliks, between two river beds, while natural green belts were incorporated within the city’s master plan.
    • For instance: A large green belt of mango trees was also planted around the city to help reduce urban sprawl and to serve as a buffer between the residential city and the industrial suburbs.
    • Climate responsive architecture: Local architecture such as mud houses within the region was considered as a template to build climate-responsive architecture.
    • City cooling plans: A small rivulet was dammed to create the Sukhna lake, to help cool the city, while small water bodies were developed near large buildings.
    • Increased tree cover: Parks were planned out in every sector, along with tree plantations alongside all the major roads. Large forest areas were also reserved.

    Conclusion

    • With climate change exacerbating local weather patterns, we are likely to see April-May temperatures reaching record highs every three years. Moreover, an El Niño-influenced monsoon bodes ill for marginal farmers and urban migrants. Policymakers must take mitigatory action early, while instituting structural infrastructure measures to help Indians adapt to these conditions.

    Mains Question

    Q. What do you understand by mean urban heat island effect? What measures can be taken to mitigate the impact of rising heatwaves and how can these efforts be integrated with broader climate change adaptation strategies?

  • Bioluminescence observed at Visakhapatnam beach

    bio

    The blooms of Noctiluca Scintillans, commonly known as “sea sparkle or bioluminescence” are being witnessed along the coasts of Visakhapatnam, AP.

    Noctiluca Scintillans

    • Scintillans is a bioluminescent specie that brightens the seawater during the night.
    • It grazes on other micro-organisms such as larvae, fish eggs, and diatoms. But the unicellular phytoplankton that lives inside it can photosynthesize, turning sunlight into energy.
    • They help their host cell survive even when food was scarce.
    • Thus, N. Scintillans acts as both a plant and an animal

    Threats posed

    • According to marine experts, the phenomenon is an indicator of climate change.
    • While smaller blooms may be harmless, slow-moving larger blooms may have an impact on deep-sea fishes.
    • The toxic blooms of N. Scintillans were linked to massive fish and marine invertebrate kills.
    • Though the species does not produce a toxin, it was found to accumulate toxic levels of ammonia, which is then excreted into the surrounding waters, possibly acting as the killing agent in blooms.
    • They have displaced microscopic algae called diatoms, which form the basis of the marine food chain. This has deprived food for the planktivorous fish.

    Back2Basics: Bioluminescence

    • It is the property of a living organism to produce and emit light.
    • Animals, plants, fungi and bacteria show bioluminescence. A remarkable diversity of marine animals and microbes are able to produce their own light.
    • It is found in many marine organisms such as bacteria, algae, jellyfish, worms, crustaceans, sea stars, fish and sharks.
    • Luminescence is generally higher in deep-living and planktonic organisms than in shallow species.

     

  • IMD predicts normal monsoon despite El Nino effect

    nino

    Central idea

    • India’s four-year run of abundant summer monsoon rainfall is likely to end this year, with the India Meteorological Department (IMD) forecasting a 4% shortfall in the coming season.
    • The monsoon forecast for 2022 is still categorized as “normal” but at 96% of the long-period average (LPA), it is at the lowest end of the range.
    • El Nino, a cyclical phenomenon of warming in the central Pacific, is believed to be the key factor responsible for the below-normal forecast.

    Factors affecting the forecast

    • El Nino: It has been linked to diminished rainfall in six out of 10 years in India, and 2022 is expected to see its development.
    • La Nina: It has been influencing the rainfall in India since 2019 and is expected to end this year.
    • Reduced snow cover in Eurasia: It can have a positive impact on the monsoon forecast, and this year’s snow cover in Eurasia was below normal.
    • Positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): IOD could result in more moisture and rainfall over India during August and September, and therefore, have a reduced impact of the El Nino.
    • IMD’s dynamical monsoon forecast techniques: It involves the simulation of global atmospheric and ocean conditions to forecast climate conditions, which the IMD has started to rely on more heavily in recent years.

    What is El Nino and La Nina?

    • El Nino and La Nina are two opposite phases of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
    • ENSO is a naturally occurring phenomenon that involves the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere in the equatorial Pacific.

    Here is a detailed comparison of El Nino and La Nina

    El Nino La Nina
    Definition Warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures Cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures
    Frequency Every two to seven years Every two to seven years
    Duration Several months to a year or more Several months to a year or more
    Impact on winds Weakens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns Strengthens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns
    Impact on rains Reduces rainfall and can cause droughts Increases rainfall and can cause flooding
    Impact on temp. Warmer-than-average temperatures Colder-than-average temperatures
    Global effects Droughts in Asia and Africa, floods in Americas Floods in Asia and Africa, droughts in South America

     

    Impacts on India

    El Nino La Nina
    Associated with weak monsoons and drought-like conditions in India Associated with above-normal rainfall and floods in India
    Sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean rises above normal levels Sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean drops below normal levels
    Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns
    Shift in the location of the jet stream, affecting the strength and direction of the monsoon winds Increase in the strength of the monsoon winds, bringing more moisture and rainfall to India
    Results in reduced rainfall, dry spells, and heatwaves, leading to crop failures and water scarcity Excessive rainfall can also lead to floods and landslides, causing damage to crops and infrastructure

     

    Back2Basics: Long Period Average (LPA) study of Monsoon

    • The IMD predicts a “normal”, “below normal”, or “above normal” monsoon in relation to a benchmark “long period average” (LPA).
    • The LPA of rainfall is the rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval (like month or season) average over a long period like 30 years, 50 years, etc.
    • LPA refers to the average rainfall recorded from June to September for the entire country, the amount of rain that falls every year varies from region to region and from month to month.
    • The IMD’s prediction of a normal monsoon is based on the LPA of the 1971-2020 period, during which India received 87 cm of rain for the entire country on average.
    • It has in the past calculated the LPA at 88 cm for the 1961-2010 period, and at 89 cm for the period 1951-2000.

    IMD Rainfall Distribution Categories

    Rainfall Distribution Categories Percentage Departure of Actual Rainfall from LPA
    Normal or Near Normal +/- 10% of LPA (between 96-104% of LPA)
    Below Normal Less than 10% of LPA (90-96% of LPA)
    Above Normal 104-110% of LPA
    Deficient Less than 90% of LPA
    Excess More than 110% of LPA

     

  • Carbon Pricing: The Way For Decarbonization

    Carbon

    Central Idea

    • Environmental destruction has been a consequence of boosting GDP growth in every country due to the absence of a price for natural resources like air and forests. To combat this, the biggest economies of the G-20 must agree on valuing nature, including by pricing carbon effluents. As president of the G-20 this year, India can take the lead in carbon pricing, which will open unexpected avenues of decarbonization.

    Pricing Carbon at present

    • Three ways of pricing carbon: carbon tax, emissions trading system (ETS), and import tariff on the carbon content
    • GHG emission: 46 countries price carbon, covering only 30% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
    • IMF’s proposed price: International Monetary Fund (IMF) proposed price floors of $75, $50, and $25 a ton of carbon for the United States, China, and India, respectively
    • Benefits: Economy-wide benefits of carbon pricing in terms of damages avoided generally outweighed the cost it imposed on individual industries in EU, British Columbia, Canada, and Sweden
    • Boost to renewables: Carbon pricing makes investment in renewable energy such as solar and wind more attractive.

    Facts for prelims

    Carbon Pricing Method Description
    Carbon Tax A domestic tax imposed on carbon emissions, directly discouraging the use of fossil fuels and raising revenue for investment in cleaner sources of energy or protection of vulnerable consumers. Example: Korea and Singapore.
    Emissions Trading System (ETS) A system that allows entities with excess emissions allowances to sell them to those that are emitting more than their allotted limit. Example: European Union and China.
    Import Tariff on Carbon Content A tax on imported goods based on the amount of carbon emissions produced during their manufacturing process, designed to discourage importing high-emissions products. Example: Proposed by the European Union.
    Carbon Offsets A voluntary mechanism in which companies or individuals pay for projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These projects may include reforestation, renewable energy, or energy efficiency initiatives. The amount of emissions reduced by the project can then be used to offset the emissions of the buyer.

    Carbon pricing for India

    • Among the three ways of pricing, India could find a carbon tax appealing as it can directly discourage fossil fuels, while raising revenues which can be invested in cleaner sources of energy or used to protect vulnerable consumers
    • IMF proposed $25 a ton as a starting point for India
    • The main obstacle is the argument by industrial firms about losing their competitive advantage to exporters from countries with a lower carbon price
    • All high, middle, and low-income countries should set the same rate within each bracket

    Carbon

    Way ahead: Need for Global Carbon Pricing

    • The first movers will be the most competitive: High enough carbon tax across China, the US, India, Russia, and Japan alone (more than 60% of global effluents), with complementary actions, could have a notable effect on global effluents and warming. The first movers will be the most competitive
    • India’s leadership: India can play a lead role by tabling global carbon pricing in the existential fight against climate change as president of the G-20 summit this September
    • Communication is important: Any type of carbon pricing faces stiff political opposition therefore communicating the idea of wins at the societal level is vital.

    Back to Basics: GHG’s

    Greenhouse Gas

    		 Properties Major Sources

    Impact
    Carbon Dioxide (CO2) -Long-lived in atmosphere.

    -Traps heat from the sun

    		 – Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)

    -Deforestation

    		 – Accounts for 76% of global GHG emissions – Primary cause of climate change
    Methane (CH4) – Short-lived in atmosphere

    – Traps more heat than CO2

    		 – Agriculture (livestock digestion, manure management)

    – Energy production

    – Landfills

    		 – Accounts for 16% of global GHG emissions – Contributes to both climate change and air pollution
    Nitrous Oxide (N2O) – Long-lived in atmosphere

    – Traps more heat than CO2

    		 – Agriculture (fertilizer use, manure management)

    – Industrial processes

    – Combustion of fossil fuels

    		 – Accounts for 6% of global GHG emissions

    – Contributes to both climate change and air pollution
    Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6) – Can have high global warming potential – Industrial processes (refrigeration, air conditioning)

    – Semiconductors

    – Electrical transmission equipment

    		 – Accounts for less than 3% of global GHG emissions

    – Can have very high global warming potential
    Ozone (O3) – Not a GHG, but plays a role in climate change – Human-made chemicals that release ozone into the atmosphere – Contributes to climate change by trapping heat
    Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – Human-made chemicals that destroy ozone in the atmosphere – Used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosol sprays – Contributes to climate change by destroying ozone, which leads to greater heat-trapping

    Carbon

    Conclusion

    • India can take the lead in carbon pricing as president of the G-20 this year. By pricing carbon effluents, India can promote investment in renewable energy, protect vulnerable consumers, and contribute to the global fight against climate change. However, there is a need for effective communication to ensure that the idea of carbon pricing is understood at the societal level, and any type of carbon pricing faces stiff political opposition.

  • Arctic scientists race to preserve ‘Ice Memory’

    snap

    Scientists from Italy, France, and Norway have set up camp in Norway’s Svalbard archipelago to extract samples of ancient ice for analysis before the frozen layers melt away due to climate change.

    ‘Ice Memory’ Project

    • Scientists will drill a series of tubes as far as 125 meters (137 yards) below the surface, which contains frozen geochemical traces dating back three centuries.
    • The scientists will work for three weeks in temperatures as low as -25 degrees Celsius (-13 Fahrenheit) to extract ice.
    • The Ice Memory foundation is running the operation.
    • The ice cores will provide scientists with valuable data about past environmental conditions.

    Analysis and storage

    • One set of ice tubes will be used for immediate analysis, while a second set will be sent to Antarctica for storage in an “ice memory sanctuary” under the snow.
    • The samples will be preserved for future generations of scientists.

    Reason for drilling

    • The Arctic is warming between two and four times faster than the global average, and water from melting ice is altering the geochemical records preserved in ancient ice beneath.
    • Hence, scientists are in a race against time to preserve crucial ice records before it disappears forever from the surface of the planet.

  • ICJ and Climate Justice

    Central idea: On March 29, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution that requested an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) regarding the obligations countries have towards climate change reduction.

    Facts for prelims: International Court of Justice (ICJ)

    • The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN).
    • It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations and began work in April 1946.
    • The court is the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), which was brought into being through, and by, the League of Nations.
    • It held its inaugural sitting at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, in February 1922.
    • After World War II, the League of Nations and PCIJ were replaced by the United Nations and ICJ respectively.
    • The PCIJ was formally dissolved in April 1946, and its last president, Judge José Gustavo Guerrero of El Salvador, became the first president of the ICJ.
    • Four Indians have been members of the ICJ so far.
    • Justice Dalveer Bhandari, former judge of the Supreme Court, has been serving at the ICJ since 2012.

     

    Vanuatu seeks climate reparations

    • The resolution, which was passed by consensus, was pushed through by the Pacific Island of Vanuatu, which was devastated by Cyclone Pam in 2015.
    • This resolution is significant because it invokes article 96 of the U.N. Charter and seeks to clarify the legal obligations of states to protect the climate system.

    Resolution A/77/L.58: What does it seek?

    The draft resolution (A/77/L.58) asks the ICJ to deliberate on two questions:

    1. Obligations of states: Under international law to ensure the protection of the climate system for present and future generations
    2. Legal consequences: For states that have caused significant harm to the climate system, particularly for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and for people who are harmed?

    Frameworks invoked by Vanuatu

    The resolution refers to several international protocols, including the-

    1. Paris Agreement
    2. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and
    3. Universal Declaration of Human Rights

    What do sponsors of the resolution want?

    • The sponsors of the resolution expect an advisory opinion from the ICJ to bolster the efforts under the global climate pledge.
    • The opinion is also expected to clarify more contentious issues, such as-
    1. Climate reparations by the developed world,
    2. Legal culpability for countries that don’t achieve their NDC promises
    3. Climate support to the most vulnerable parts of the world

    Where does India stand over this?

    • India has been silent about the resolution, although it is generally supportive of climate justice and holding the developed world accountable for global warming.
    • India did not co-sponsor the draft resolution, unlike its neighbors Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.

    If ICJ intervenes, what would change?

    • Only advisory opinion: The ICJ is being asked for an advisory opinion, which would not be legally binding as an ICJ judgment.
    • Puts moral obligation: The ICJ carries “legal weight and moral authority”.
    • Symbolic significance: ICJ’s clarification of international environmental laws would make the process more streamlined, particularly as the COP process looks at various issues like climate finance, climate justice, and the most recently agreed to “loss and damages” etc.

    Conclusion

    • The resolution passed by the UNGA requesting an advisory opinion from the ICJ is a step in the right direction towards clarifying the legal obligations of states to mitigate climate change and protect the environment for future generations.
    • To ensure the success of this effort, countries need to continue to engage in diplomatic efforts and work towards shared goals.
    • Countries should also actively participate in the ICJ process and respect the advisory opinion it delivers.

  • UN allows Deep Sea Mining operations from July

    mining

    Central idea: The International Seabed Authority has announced that it will start accepting applications from companies for deep sea mining from July.

    Why in news?

    • This decision was made in the absence of a mining code that has not been put in place yet.

    What is Deep Sea Mining?

    • Deep-sea mining is the process of extracting minerals from the deep ocean floor.
    • The minerals that are extracted can include valuable metals such as copper, gold, nickel, and manganese, as well as rare earth metals that are used in high-tech devices such as smartphones, computers, and electric vehicles.
    • The minerals are found in the form of polymetallic nodules that are located on the ocean floor at depths of around 4 to 6 kilometers.
    • Deep-sea mining involves the use of specially designed equipment that can withstand the extreme pressure and temperature conditions found at these depths.

    About International Seabed Authority

    • The International Seabed Authority is a Jamaica-based organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
    • The authority holds jurisdiction over the ocean floors outside of the Exclusive Economic Zones of its 167 member states.

    Reasons behind undersea mining

    • The mining is aimed at extracting cobalt, copper, nickel, and manganese from the ocean’s floor.
    • The undersea mining will extract key battery materials from polymetallic nodules found at depths of 4 kilometers to 6 kilometers.
    • These nodules are potato-sized rocks containing cobalt, copper, nickel, and manganese.

    Key concern: Mining code missing

    • Despite 10 years of discussion, there is no mining code in place.
    • The governing council of ISA is uncertain about the process it should adopt for reviewing applications for mining contracts.

    Issues with deep-sea mining

    • Deep-sea mining is a controversial issue that has raised concerns among non-governmental organizations, experts, and some countries.
    • One major concern is the potential damage to the seabed and the essential function of deep-sea ecosystems in regulating the climate.
    • Mining activities can also have wider impacts on fish populations, marine mammals, and other ocean life.

    Tap to read more about

    India’s Deep Ocean Mission

  • Climate Justice and Accountability: Can Countries be Sued for Failing to Avert Climate Emergencies

    Central Idea

    • The UN General Assembly has asked the International Court of Justice to weigh in on whether countries can be sued under international law for failing to avert climate emergencies, reflecting the frustration of the international community with global climate agencies and the need for more effective climate action.

    Background

    • Resolution by Vanuatu: The resolution, sponsored by the small Pacific island nation of Vanuatu, was adopted unanimously, indicating global consensus on the climate crisis.
    • Delay climate action: Frustration with the procedures of global climate agencies, particularly the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), stems from their deliberations often ending in compromises that delay climate action.
    • ICJ’s decision carries moral weight: The Hague-based court’s opinion will not be binding but carries moral weight, potentially setting the stage for countries to incorporate climate justice in their legal frameworks.

    Role of ICJ and its jurisdiction

    1. Contentious: Contentious jurisdiction refers to the ICJ’s authority to resolve legal disputes between consenting states. Decisions made under contentious jurisdiction are binding
    2. Advisory:
    • Advisory jurisdiction allows the UN General Assembly (UNGA), the Security Council (SC), and other specialized bodies of the organization to request the ICJ’s opinion on a legal question.
    • The ICJ’s advisory opinions are non-binding. However, they hold significant normative weight and serve to clarify international law on relevant issues.
    • The ICJ’s advisory opinion on climate change can be useful in climate-related litigation at the national level.

    Previous attempts to address climate change in non-environmental forums

    • Global warming on agenda: Global warming has been part of the UN Security Council’s agenda since 2007, with the UNSC attempting to frame the issue from a security standpoint, rather than solely from developmental or environmental perspectives.
    • Securitization of climate change: Developing countries, including India and China, have rightly resisted the securitization of climate change, arguing that it could lead to the imposition of sanctions and other coercive measures.
    • Rights and justice: The use of rights and justice vocabulary has given the Vanuatu-sponsored proposal more traction and global support.

    Rights and justice vocabulary and recent developments

    • Climate justice: The Vanuatu-sponsored proposal emphasizes the importance of climate justice in addressing the issue.
    • Right to reparations: Countries have started asserting their right to reparations after climate emergencies, such as Pakistan after the devastating floods in 2020 and the recent discussions on loss and damage during the COP26 conference in Glasgow.
    • Rising climate litigation cases worldwide: The rise of climate litigation cases worldwide, where citizens and organizations sue governments and corporations for their failure to act on climate change, highlights the growing demand for climate justice.

    Challenges in holding countries accountable

    • Holding individual accountable: Holding individual countries or governments accountable for their climate inaction has been a major stumbling block at several climate meets.
    • Compensation issue: The Paris Agreement contains a clause specifying that the pact does not involve or provide a basis for any liability or compensation, inserted under pressure from US diplomats.
    • Adamant stance: American support for the UNGA resolution was reportedly reluctant, indicating that powerful countries might resist being held accountable for their climate inaction.

    Conclusion

    • The UNGA’s intervention should not detract from the task of reforming the UNFCCC. Institutions of the umbrella climate agency need to be more equity-sensitive and justice-oriented. Engaging with the ICJ could push it in that direction, but wealthier members of the UNFCCC must show more initiative. The growing demand for climate justice and the increasing number of climate litigation cases highlight the importance of addressing the issue in a just and equitable manner.