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GS Paper: GS1-10.Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism.

  • Why are the tribals in India referred to as the Scheduled Tribes? Indicate the major provisions enshrined in the Constitution of India for their upliftment.

  • What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence, addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)?

  • Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India.

  • Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving suitable illustrations.

    In the Indian context, communalism refers to a political ideology that uses religious identity to mobilize groups for secular ends. As per T.K. Oommen, it is the “politicization of religious identity.”

    Power Struggle Leading to Communalism

    Colonial Legacy of “Divide and Rule”- The British used communalism to prevent the rise of a united nationalist front. Eg- separate electorates under Morley-Minto Reforms.

    Partition of India due to power struggle between Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha.

    Electoral Mobilization- “communal polarization” for vote bank politics. Eg- Ram Janmabhoomi movement

    The Institutionalized Riot System – Paul Brass argues that riots are produced through three stages- Preparation (constant tension), Activation, and Explanation for electoral benefits. Eg- hate speech-riots-blame game.

    Instrumentalist school- as per Asghar Ali Engineer, it is a tool used by the elites to safeguard their leadership and prevent class-based mobilization of the poor.

    Administrative Partisanship- If the state machinery appears biased, it emboldens communal actors. Eg- administrative paralysis during 1984 Anti-Sikh riots.

    Politicization of history – Eg- Conflicts over Gyanvapi Mosque or Shahi Idgah serve as sites for asserting cultural and political hegemony.

    Separatist movements like Khalistan and insurgency in North-East highlights struggle for political autonomy

    Political underrepresentation – Lack of voice in governance intensifies alienation. Eg- only 24 muslim MPs in 18th LS

    Relative Deprivation Leading to Communalism

    As per Ted Robert Gurr, relative deprivation occurs when there is a perceived gap between a group’s “value expectations” and their “value capabilities”.

    Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advised Muslims not to join congress to increase their representation in government jobs. (Loyal Muhammadans of India – book)

    Socio-Economic Backwardness –

    Sachar Committee Report (2006) highlighted the lack of Muslims in government jobs, fueling a sense of systemic deprivation.

    Ghettoization and poverty in cities foster “us vs. them” mentalities.

    Economic Competition and conflict

    1961 Jabalpur Riots due to competition between Hindu and Muslim bidi entrepreneurs

    Conflicts over resources are given a communal color to mobilize support quickly. Eg- Moplah revolt of 1921 by Mapilla muslims against muslim landlords

    Majoritarianism- fear among minorities of suppression of their language or traditions by a secular or majority culture. Eg- portest against triple talaq.

    Educational Mismatch- illiteracy and unemployment among youth makes them susceptible to communal outfits that offer a sense of identity and purpose. Eg- Burhan Vani

    Migration and fear of demographic change- Native populations feel deprived of jobs by “outsiders.” Eg- Communal tensions in Assam due to migration of Bangladeshi muslims

    Way Forward

    Implementing the Prakash Singh Directives to ensure the police act as an impartial force during tensions

    Implementing recommendations of the Amitabh Kundu Committee to ensure development reaches the “bottom-most” layers of all communities.

    Civic Integration (Ashutosh Varshney) through mixed-religion residential societies and business associations to act as a buffer against riots.

    Regulating Hate Speech- Strict enforcement of MCC during elections.

    Community Policing- Scaling models like Mohalla Committees (Mumbai).

    Establishing Fast Track Courts to ensure timely persecution of perpetrators of riot

    Inclusive development policies and ethical political leadership are needed to ensure that power competition does not fracture social cohesion and deprivation does not become a communal grievance.

  • Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, caste system cannot be eradicated in India. Comment.

    Caste can be defined as a localized, hereditary, and endogamous group characterized by a fixed rank in a ritual hierarchy (Varna).

    New identities and associational forms of the caste system

    Caste based political parties – Eg- BSP (Dalits) or RJD/SP (Yadavs)

    Caste as a tool of political mobilization. Eg- Jat and Maratha reservation demand

    Caste coalitions to gain political bargaining power. Eg- AJGAR (Ahir, Jat, Gujar, Rajput) or MY (Muslim-Yadav) alliances.

    Intersection of Caste with Class – Eg- Emergence of a Dalit and OBC middle class.

    Caste based economic groups. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) promoting “Dalit Capitalism”

    Urban and Professional Networks – Eg- Caste-based matrimonial preferences and housing patterns.

    Sanskritisation (M.N. Srinivas) – Lower castes adopting practices of upper castes to achieve upward mobility.

    Institutionalisation through State Policies – Eg- Reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.

    Digital and Social Media Mobilisation – New platforms for caste assertion.

    Possibility of eradication of caste

    Arguments in favour

    Erosion of Traditional Caste Functions – Eg- rising inter-caste marriages

    Legal and Constitutional Interventions – Eg- Article 17, anti-atrocity laws.

    Urbanisation and Migration dilute caste boundaries.

    Secularization of Youth – prioritizes “Class and Merit” over “Caste and Ritual”

    Anti-caste ideologies challenging legitimacy. Eg- Ambedkarite movements.

    Argument against

    Cultural Reproduction – Caste embedded in rituals, customs, and kinship.

    Persistence of Endogamy – over 90% same caste marriages

    Vote bank politics

    Role of Family – Early internalisation of caste identity.

    Institutional Dependence on Caste Data – Eg- caste census

    While caste as a social identity may persist, caste as a system of hierarchy, discrimination, and exclusion can be dismantled through constitutional morality, education, economic justice, and social reform.

  • How the Indian concept of secularism is different from the western model of secularism? Discuss.

    Secularism is a political and constitutional principle that governs the relationship between the state and religion, ensuring that governance operates independently of theological control.

    Similarities and Common Foundations

    Rejection of Theocracy

    Equality Before Law

    Non-Discrimination Mandate

    Freedom of Individual Conscience

    Rational Civic Ordering

    Peaceful Coexistence

    Difference Between Indian and Western Secularism

    While the Western model enforces a strict, rigid wall of separation between state and religion, the Indian concept maintains a dynamic, principled distance, allowing the state to balance deep religious pluralism with necessary social reform.

  • What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism. (10m,150 words)

    Secularism in the Indian context implies a “principled distance”, ensuring freedom of conscience while upholding constitutional morality, equality, and public order.

    Challenges to cultural practices in the name of secularism

    State intervention in religious institutions dilutes traditional autonomy. Eg- Government management of Hindu temples

    Courts determining “essential practices” (Shirur Math case) oversimplify lived culture.

    Sabrimala temple verdict

    Triple talaq ban

    Uniformity over diversity – Secular frameworks ignore internal plurality within religions.

    Marginalization of indigenous and folk traditions – Eg- ban on Jallikattu or kambala

    UCC can lead to erosion of distinct cultural identity of tribals and the “Legal Pluralism” guaranteed under Article 25.

    Environmental Regulations on Festivals restrict cultural expressions.

    Supreme Court’s ban on firecrackers during Diwali,

    Restrictions on loudspeakers for Azaan/Bhajans

    Height limits for Dahi Handi pyramids.

    Politicization of secularism for vote bank politics. Eg- controversy over Hijab ban in schools in Karnataka

    Intervention in Food Culture- Eg- meat-sale bans during religious festivals like Paryushan

    Right to profess and propagate religion is misused for forced conversions especially of tribals

    Way Forward

    Substantive secularism – Balance cultural freedom with equality, dignity, and justice.
    Judicial restraint – Limit theological interpretation to constitutional necessity.

    Protection of pluralism – Safeguard folk, tribal, and minority cultural practices.

    Adopting Multicultural Secularism – active accommodation of religious symbols

    Promoting Inter-Faith & Intra-Faith Dialogue for “reforms from within” (T.N. Madan)

    When practiced as principled neutrality with respect for pluralism, secularism protects both cultural practices and constitutional values.

  • Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree?

    Customs represent the “inherited wisdom” of a society, providing a sense of identity and continuity. However, when they become rigid and immune to questioning, they can lead to obscurantism i.e. deliberate suppression of facts, logic, and scientific inquiry.

    Customs and traditions suppressing reason and leading to obscurantism

    Blind Ritualism – Mechanical adherence discourages questioning and rational inquiry. Eg- Astrology determining marriage, education, and career decisions.

    Moral Absolutism – Customs treated as eternal truths beyond questioning. Eg- practice of Nikah Halala or rigid Purdah systems

    Superstitions – Fear-based practices override scientific thinking. Eg- Witch-hunting in some tribal belts.

    Caste-Based Discrimination – Tradition legitimises hierarchy and inequality. Eg- Persistence of untouchability practices.

    Patriarchal Customs restrict autonomy and rational reform. Eg- Child marriage and son meta preference.

    Religious Orthodoxy – Dogmatic interpretations suppress dissent. Eg- honor killings.

    Resistance to Social Reform – Tradition used to justify the status quo. Eg- Opposition sabrimala temple entry for women.

    Fear of social boycott silences rational voices. Eg- Khap panchayat diktats.

    Obstruction to Scientific Temper – Eg- Faith healing replacing medical treatment or vaccine hesitancy among tribals

    Educational Constraints – Eg- Restrictions on girls’ education in conservative communities.

    Legal Stagnation – Laws based on “customary practice” often protect outdated behaviors that modern reason would deem criminal. Eg- legal immunity for Marital Rape

    Counter-Argument- The Rationality of Tradition

    Cultural Identity and Stability – Traditions ensure social cohesion. Eg- Family and kinship systems.

    Scientific nature of traditions and customs. Eg- use of Turmeric (Haldi) for its antiseptic properties

    Traditions act as ethical frameworks and provide moral guidance. Eg- Values of ahimsa, dharma, tolerance.

    Reform from Within Tradition – Many reform movements emerged internally. Eg- Buddhism, Bhakti movement.

    Adaptive Nature of Traditions – Customs evolve with social change. Eg- greater acceptance of widow remarriage

    Ecological Conservation – customs establish a symbiotic relationship with nature. Eg- Sacred Groves (Devrai)

    Social Safety Nets – Traditions of collectivism provide psychological and material support. Eg- Langar tradition in Sikhism

    The need of the hour is to harmonise tradition with reason, scientific temper, and constitutional morality, ensuring cultural continuity without compromising rational progress.

  • Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness? Argue.

    Regionalism is political, social, or cultural mobilization around a specific region, rooted in language, culture, history, economy, or perceived neglect, seeking greater autonomy, recognition, or resources.

    Regionalism as a Consequence of Rising Cultural Assertiveness

    Linguistic assertiveness against cultural centralization– Eg- Anti-Hindi agitations in Tamil Nadu or the recent Kannada-first signage mandates in Karnataka.

    Ethno-cultural nationalism – Region imagined as a cultural nation.

    Tamil cultural nationalism emphasizing classical language and Dravidian heritage.

    Demand for Greater Nagalim rooted in the assertion of a unique Naga identity.

    Religious identity also acts as a base for regional assertiveness. Eg- demand for Khalistan

    Preservation of Folk Traditions- Eg- protests against Jallikattu Ban (2017) were framed as an assertion of Tamil “Veeru” (bravery) against “outsider” legal impositions.

    Cultural symbolism is used for political mobilization. Eg- renaming Bombay to Mumbai and Calcutta to Kolkata.

    Sons of the Soil Doctrine- Movements like the Shiv Sena’s initial “Marathi Manoos” campaign assert that locals must have the first right over the state’s resources.

    Sub-Regional Assertion- Eg- demand for Tulu Nadu based on the distinct Tulu language and culture.

    Resistance to “Mainstreaming”- Tribal regionalism in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh began as an assertion of Adivasi culture against the “Diku” (outsiders).

    Other Factors Driving Regionalism in India

    Inter-State Disparities- widening economic gap between the prosperous South/West and the lagging East/North creates friction. Eg- violence against Bihari migrants in Gujarat

    Relative Deprivation

    Vidarbha in Maharashtra.

    Demand for Telangana before 2014

    Paul Brass argues that regionalism is politically constructed, where cultural markers are activated by elites for political benefits. Eg- invoking “bengal pride” by TMC

    Inter-state disputes over resources fuels regionalism. Eg- Krishna-Godavari water disputes between Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

    Administrative Neglect- Large states become too big to govern, leading to the demand for smaller states. Eg- demand for the division of UP into Harit Pradesh, Purvanchal, Bundelkhand, and Awadh Pradesh

    Way Forward

    Cooperative Federalism- Strengthening the Inter-State Council (Article 263)

    Balanced Regional Development- Eg- aspirational district program

    Scaling the “Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat” program for promoting fraternity

    Administrative Decentralization- empowering Local Bodies

    A mature Indian federalism must promote inclusive development, autonomy with unity, and diversity with constitutional fraternity.

  • Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-cultural Indian Society? Elaborate your answer with illustrations.

    Caste can be defined as a localized, hereditary, and endogamous group characterized by a fixed rank in a ritual hierarchy (Varna).

    Caste losing relevance

    Decline of Ritual Hierarchy – Notions of purity and pollution have weakened. Eg- Inter-caste dining in urban areas is common

    Occupational Mobility – Caste-occupation linkage has diluted. Eg- Dalits and OBCs in IT, civil services, academia.

    Urbanisation and Migration promote anonymity and mixed social spaces. Eg- Cosmopolitan life in metros like Mumbai and Bengaluru.

    Legal and Constitutional Framework has established equality before law irrespective of caste hierarchy. Eg- Article 14 and Article 17.

    Rise of Individualism – Personal choice gaining prominence over ascriptive identity. Eg- Love marriages, nuclear families.

    Growth of Class-Based Stratification in urban settings. Eg- rise of dalit and OBC Middle Class

    Relevance of caste

    Enduring Endogamy – NFHS-5 (2023-24) data confirms that over 90% of marriages remain intra-caste

    Political Mobilisation – Caste act as a “Political Vote Bank.” Eg- 2024-25 Bihar Caste Survey and announcement of “Caste Census”

    Caste remains a basis for welfare and representation. Eg- Reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.

    Economic inequalities along caste lines. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Social Discrimination along caste lines persists. Eg- Hatras rape case or Rohith Vemula death.

    Intersectionality – Caste intersects with gender, religion, and region. Eg- Dalit women facing multiple marginalities.

    New associational forms. Eg- Maratha Kranti Morcha, Patidar Anamat Andolan.

    Caste based economic groups. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) promoting “Dalit Capitalism”

    Caste-Based Spatial Segregation (Ghettoization) in modern cities

    Inter-generational Wealth Gap – The Oxfam Inequality Report (2024) highlights that the average wealth of a General Category family is nearly triple that of a Dalit family.

    Understanding contemporary India therefore requires recognising caste not as a static relic, but as a dynamic and evolving social reality operating alongside class, gender, religion, and region.