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GS Paper: GS2

  • From the resolution of contentious issues regarding distribution of legislative powers by the courts, ‘Principle of Federal Supremacy’ and ‘Harmonious Construction’ have emerged. Explain.

    As per Ivor Jennings, India is “a federation with a strong centralising tendency.” The 7th Schedule is a reflection of this tendency.

    Contentious Issues regarding Distribution of Legislative Powers

    Concurrent List repugnancy – Eg- Education (Concurrent List, Entry 25) – Centre’s NEET law vs Tamil Nadu’s opposition to it.

    Residuary powers with the Union

    Under Article 249, Rajya Sabha can empower Parliament to legislate on State List subjects. Eg- Essential Commodities Act (food items, agricultural produce).

    During National Emergency (Art. 250) or President’s Rule (Art. 356), Parliament can legislate on State subjects.

    Principle of Federal Supremacy

    In cases of irreconcilable conflict, Union law prevails over State law.

    Judicial Validation–

    Union of India v. H.S. Dhillon (1972) – Parliament has residuary powers.

    State of Karnataka v. Union of India (1977) – Union’s primacy in matters of national importance.

    State of West Bengal v. Union of India (1963) – SC upheld Parliament’s power to acquire State property.

    Zameer Ahmed Latifur Rehman Sheikh v. State of Maharashtra (2010) – SC ruled that a central money laundering law overrides conflicting State law under Article 254(1).

    Protects national unity and uniformity in crucial subjects.

    Principle of Harmonious Construction

    Courts attempt to reconcile conflicts so that both Union and State laws can function simultaneously.

    Judicial Validation–

    In C.B. Boarding and Lodging v. State of Mysore (1970), the SC upheld the State’s power to levy tax on lodging houses, even though taxation on income was a Union subject.

    State of Rajasthan v. G. Chawla (1959) – Both Centre and State laws upheld through harmonious interpretation.

    Hoechst Pharmaceuticals v. State of Bihar (1983) – Repugnancy avoided through reconciliation.

    Preserves federal balance and safeguards state autonomy.

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Both Union & States are creatures of the Constitution

  • What can France learn from the Indian Constitution’s approach to secularism?

    Secularism ensures the neutrality of the State toward religion while protecting freedom of belief and conscience.

    While France follows Laïcité, emphasizing strict separation of religion and State, India practices positive secularism, ensuring equal respect for all religions within a plural society.

    France’s Model of Secularism (Laïcité)

    Based on non-recognition and non-involvement of the State in religious affairs.

    Guarantees freedom of conscience but restricts public religious expression (e.g., veil ban in schools, 2004).

    Aims to preserve republican unity and neutrality in the public sphere.

    India’s Model of Secularism

    Enshrined in the Preamble and Articles 25-28 of the Constitution.

    Guarantees freedom of religion, equal treatment of all faiths, and State neutrality.

    Allows State intervention for social reform (e.g., abolition of untouchability, Sabarimala judgment).

    Described as positive secularism – promoting harmony through engagement, not exclusion.

    Upheld as a basic feature of the Constitution in S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994).

    Lessons France Can Learn from Indian Secularism

    Inclusive Neutrality: The State can respect all religions equally rather than excluding them from the public sphere.

    Reform-Oriented State Role: The State can intervene in religious practices to uphold human rights and gender equality (e.g., abolition of untouchability, temple entry)

    Multiculturalism – respecting cultural and religious rights and customs. Promoting plurality instead of uniformity

    Freedom of Religious Expression: Allowing individuals to express faith in public spaces strengthens personal liberty (e.g., Sikh turban, Muslim veil).

    Pluralism as Democratic Strength: Religious diversity, when accommodated constitutionally, enhances national unity and democratic legitimacy.

    Balancing Liberty with Equality: Secularism should protect individual conscience while also advancing social justice and non-discrimination.

    Dialogue over Restriction: Promoting inter-faith dialogue and accommodation builds social cohesion better than prohibitive policies.

    Protection of minority rights through special provisions. Eg- Article 29,30.

    Secularism need not mean “absence of religion in public life,” but rather “equal respect and peaceful coexistence of all religions under a neutral State.”

  • Despite Consistent experience of High growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive.

    India is Fastest Growing Economy in the world (IMF) but low HDI rank (130 out of 193, UNDP 2025) highlight that growth has not translated into inclusive development.

    Indicators of human development

    Poverty Headcount Ratio – 11.28% (2022-23)

    Malnutrition – NFHS-5

    35.5% stunting,

    19.3% wasting,

    32.1% underweight in children under five

    Inequality – the richest 1% owning over 40% of the nation’s wealth, while the bottom 50% hold a mere 3-6%.

    Issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive.

    Political Factors

    Policy Fragmentation: scheme overlaps and lack of convergence dilute impact.

    Short-Term Populism: Focus on vote-bank subsidies over long-term human capital investments. Eg- low spending on Health (1.98% of GDP) and Education (2.9% of GDP)

    Weak Decentralization: Eg- Only 40% of States have functional District Planning Committees.

    Economic Factors

    Jobless Growth: Services contribute 55% of GDP but employ less than 30% of workforce.

    Agrarian Distress: 42% of workforce in agriculture contributes just 17% to GDP

    Social Factors

    Gender Inequality: low Female Labour Force Participation due to

    Triple Burden – Household, Children, Job

    Patriarchal Mindset – Eg- Sarpanch Pati

    Law of asset ownership – only 11% land ownership

    Education and Health Deficits

    High out of pocket expenditure (40%)

    Digital Apartheid in education during Covid

    Environmental Stress: Unsustainable urbanization, pollution, and water scarcity aggravate human deprivation.

    Institutional Factors

    Weak Governance Capacity: Poor implementation, leakages, and bureaucratic delays persist. Eg- inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS

    Ineffective Targeting: Outdated socio-economic data hinder evidence-based policy (SECC 2011 still in use).

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach – increase spending on Health (2.5%of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Adopt Best Practices

    Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign

    Participatory Budgeting in porto alegre brazil

    Decentralized Governance based on principle of subsidiarity.

    “Growth becomes meaningful only when it expands human freedom and capability.” – Amartya Sen

  • Do you think that constitution of India does not accept principle of strict separation of powers rather it is based on the principle of ‘checks and balance’? Explain.

    SoP is derived from Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws (1748) – dividing state power into Legislature, Executive, Judiciary to prevent concentration and arbitrariness.

    Separation of Powers in the Constitution

    Article 50 – Separation of executive and judiciary (Directive Principle).

    Articles 122 & 212 – Courts not to question proceedings of Parliament and State Legislatures.

    Articles 121 & 211 – Conduct of judges cannot be discussed in Parliament or State Legislatures (except during impeachment).

    Article 361 – President and Governors enjoy immunity; not answerable to courts for exercise of powers and duties.

    However, Strict Separation Does Not Exist due to

    Legislature & Executive Overlap – Executive is drawn from the legislature (Art. 74 & 75; Art. 163 & 164).

    Delegated Legislation – Legislature delegates rule-making powers to executive authorities.

    Judicial Functions of Legislature in cases of breach of privilege or impeachment of judges.

    Judicial Functions of Executive – pardons and commutations (Art. 72 & 161) by President and Governors.

    Checks and Balances in Practice

    Judicial Review – Judiciary can strike down unconstitutional laws and executive actions. Eg – NJAC Judgment.

    Legislative Control over Executive via questions, motions, and no-confidence votes.

    Executive’s Role in appointment of judges through the collegium system consultation.

    Judiciary review of laws for conformity with Fundamental Rights and Basic Structure. Eg – Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975).

    Legislative control over judiciary – Eg- 2018 Amendments to Atrocities Act, Impeachment Motions

    “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” – Lord Acton
    Thus, checks and balances are essential to prevent tyranny and preserve democracy.

  • “The Central Administration Tribunal which was established for redressal of grievances and complaints by or against central government employees, nowadays is exercising its powers as an independent judicial authority.” Explain.

    The CAT was established under Article 323A and Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 to provide speedy and specialized justice in service matters of Central Government employees.

    Objectives of the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT)

    Speedy Justice

    Reduce Burden on Courts

    Specialized Adjudication

    Ensure Administrative Fairness – Protect employees from arbitrary, unjust, or discriminatory administrative actions.

    Accessible and Affordable Justice

    Maintain consistency and coherence in decisions across departments.

    Promote Administrative Accountability

    Realize Article 39A by making justice accessible to all employees.

    CAT as Independent Judicial Authority

    Exclusive Jurisdiction-

    CAT adjudicates disputes on recruitment, promotion, transfer, service conditions, and disciplinary actions of Central employees.

    Its jurisdiction excludes ordinary civil courts in service matters.

    Powers of a Civil Court, including summoning witnesses, receiving evidence, and delivering binding orders.

    Though under the DoPT for administrative purposes, CAT functions judicially independent in decision-making.

    Judicial Review Authority- CAT can strike down administrative actions violating Articles 14, 16, or 21. Eg- It has quashed arbitrary transfer orders and disciplinary actions in several cases.

    Following L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India (1997), CAT decisions are subject to judicial review by High Courts under Articles 226/227, ensuring accountability.

    CAT, in line with Article 39A, must ensure administrative justice while upholding judicial independence and judicial review as constitutional safeguards.

  • What are the methods used by the Farmers organizations to influence the policy- makers in India and how effective are these methods?

    Farmers’ organisations are collective associations that represent the interests of cultivators, agricultural laborers, and rural producers and seek to influence agricultural policy and secure fair prices. Eg- Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU)

    Methods Used by Farmers’ Organisations to Influence Policymakers

    Protest and Agitation – Organize rallies, dharnas, sit-ins, and tractor marches etc. Eg- 2020-21 Farm Laws Protest.

    Lobbying and Negotiation – Engage directly with ministries, parliamentary committees, and NITI Aayog to submit memoranda, draft proposals, and policy recommendations.

    Electoral and Political Pressure

    Mobilize vote banks in rural constituencies and influence party manifestos.

    Forming political parties to contest elections. Eg- Shetkari Sanghatana in Maharashtra

    Use mass media, social media, and civil society networks to build public opinion. Eg- #NoFarmersNoFood campaigns on X.

    Coalition and Network Building – Create alliances with trade unions, civil society groups, and opposition parties. Eg- All India Kisan Sangharsh Coordination Committee (AIKSCC) unites over 200 farmer unions.

    Legal and Institutional Interventions – Eg- Farmer bodies filed PILs against land acquisition and farm laws.

    Effectiveness of Methods Used by Farmers’ Organisations

    Positive Outcomes

    Policy Reversals through sustained pressure. Eg- Repeal of the Three Farm Laws (2021) after year-long protests.

    Enhanced Political Awareness – Eg- Farmers’ mobilisation in western Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

    Short-Term Economic Gains – Secured loan waivers, input subsidies, and MSP hikes.

    Brought rural issues to national discourse via social media.

    Greater Institutional Inclusion – Eg- Farmer representatives included in Committee on MSP (2022) for reform proposals.

    Strengthened Democratic Participation

    Limitations

    Fragmentation – divisions based on region, caste, and crop pattern. Eg- dominance of North Indian Farmers in Farm Laws protest

    Many farmer groups are linked with political parties, reducing credibility as neutral stakeholders.

    Role is majorly protective, limiting structural reforms. Eg- opposition to GM crops

    Weak Policy Research and Data-Based Advocacy

    Use of violent means – Eg- red fort incident during farm protests

    Marginalization of small and women farmers in representation

    Farmer movements represent the democratic heartbeat of rural India. They must move from protest-based mobilization to knowledge-based engagement with the state.

  • “The incidence and intensity of poverty are more important in determining poverty based on income alone”. In this context analyse the latest United Nations Multidimensional Poverty Index Report.

    As per World Bank, Poverty is a “pronounced deprivation in well-being” which includes low incomes and the inability to acquire basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity.

    Incidence (H): The proportion of the population who are multidimensionally poor (i.e., deprived in a set share of weighted indicators).

    Intensity (A): The average share of deprivations experienced by the multidimensionally poor.

    MPI value (H × A): Combines incidence and intensity, capturing both how many are poor and how deprived they are beyond the income dimension.

    Why Incidence and Intensity Matter More than Income Alone

    Comprehensive Understanding: Income tells how much money people have, while incidence and intensity show what capabilities they lack.

    Reveals Depth of Deprivation: Two people may have the same income, but one may suffer more due to lack of education or sanitation – intensity captures this depth.

    Targets Policy Better: Helps governments identify which dimensions (health, education, housing) need priority investment.

    Explains Poverty Despite Income Growth: India’s poverty rate has declined (2.35% extreme poverty, World Bank 2024), yet hunger, malnutrition, and illiteracy persist – showing income growth doesn’t equal welfare growth.

    Measures Human Development, Not Just Economics: Aligns with Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach – poverty is deprivation of basic freedoms and opportunities, not just low income.

    Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Report 2025

    Global Poverty Statistics – 1.1 billion (18.3%) people in acute multidimensional poverty. Majority are young, rural, and living in low human development countries

    MPI Reduction Trends – Of 88 countries with comparable data, 76 saw a decline in MPI at least once

    Multidimensional Poverty in India

    Poverty fell from 55.1% (2005-2006) to 16.4% (2019-2021)

    About 415 million people exited multidimensional poverty

    Poverty and Climate Interlinkages

    32 million people displaced by climate-related shocks in 2022

    309 million poor people live in regions with three or four overlapping climate hazards

    Without strong climate action, extreme poverty could nearly double by 2050

    MPI Across Income Levels

    64.5% of global poor live in middle-income countries

    55.5% in lower-middle-income nations

    9% in upper-middle-income nations

    Common Global Deprivations

    Clean cooking fuel: 970 million deprived

    Adequate housing: 878 million deprived

    Sanitation: 830 million deprived

    Undernutrition: 635 million deprived

    Children out of school: 487 million deprived

    Limitations of the Global MPI

    Data Gaps: Many countries rely on outdated or incomplete household surveys; MPI data lags actual conditions.

    Uniform Weights and Indicators: Equal weighting (health, education, living standards) may not reflect local priorities or contexts.

    Intra-country Variations: National averages mask disparities between rural-urban areas, genders, and regions.

    No Vulnerability Capture: MPI measures current deprivation but not people at risk of falling back into poverty.

    Way Forward

    Social Determinants Approach: Integration of hunger and poverty with nutrition, sanitation (Swachh Bharat), and clean energy (Ujjwala Yojana).

    Adopt data-driven local interventions under Aspirational Districts Programme to target high-burden regions.

    Adopt Brazil’s Bolsa Família conditional cash transfer scheme

    Poverty is the worst form of violence – Mahatma Gandhi.

    A whole of government and whole of society approach is needed to achieve SDG-1

  • “Micro-Finance as an anti-poverty vaccine, is aimed at asset creation and income security of the rural poor in India”. Evaluate the role of Self Help Groups in achieving the twin objectives along with empowering women in rural India.

    Microfinance aims to provide collateral-free credit and promote self-employment among the poor. In India, Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged as a cornerstone of this model.

    Role of Micro-Finance and SHGs in Asset Creation

    Access to Institutional Credit – Provide collateral-free microcredit. Eg- over 1 Cr SHGs linked to banks, mobilising (NABARD, 2024).

    Productive Investment – Loans used for purchasing livestock, equipment, raw materials, leading to tangible asset formation. Eg- Kudumbashree (Kerala)

    SHGs facilitate small-scale entrepreneurship among rural poor, generating durable assets. Eg- Jeevika (Bihar) created over 1 crore women micro-entrepreneurs.

    Community Assets – Many SHG federations contribute to community-level assets such as storage units, community halls, and water facilities.

    Role of Micro-Finance and SHGs in Income Security

    Diversification of Livelihoods – Credit supports farm and non-farm enterprises, ensuring multiple income streams.

    Savings and Financial Literacy – SHGs promote thrift and savings discipline, building a safety net against economic shocks.

    Access to formal banking lowers interest burden and enhances disposable income.

    Resilience during Crises – During COVID-19, SHGs produced PPEs, masks, and ran community kitchens, ensuring income continuity and local resilience.

    Linkages with Government Schemes – Convergence with PMEGP, MUDRA, and NRLM enhances employment and financial stability.

    Role of Micro-Finance and SHGs in Empowering Women

    Economic Empowerment – SHGs provide women with control over credit, income, and assets. Eg- Lakhpati Didi Initiative (2023) aims to enable 2 crore rural women

    Social Empowerment – Collective decision-making improves confidence, literacy, and awareness on issues like health, sanitation, and domestic violence.

    Political Empowerment – SHGs act as platforms for leadership training, increasing participation in Panchayati Raj Institutions.

    Digital and Financial Inclusion – Initiatives like Bank Sakhi model and digital SHGs under PMGDISHA strengthen women’s agency in the digital economy.

    Social Capital Formation – SHGs nurture solidarity, cooperation, and local governance participation, building community-level empowerment.

    Challenges

    High Interest Rates: MFIs often charge 20-24%, burdening the poor.

    “Missing Middle” finance trap – they outgrow microcredit but cannot access medium-scale loans.

    Regional Imbalance: Concentration of SHGs in southern states (71%); weak in the north and northeast.

    Limited Market Access: Lack of integration with value chains and formal markets.

    Poor Financial Management – Irregular bookkeeping, misappropriation of funds, and lack of audit systems result in low creditworthiness.

    Patriarchal Resistance – In many regions, especially in North India, SHGs are viewed as token collectives rather than serious economic actors.

    Way Forward

    Develop Market Linkages: Integrate SHGs with ONDC, GeM, and e-NAM for fair pricing and wider market access.

    Interest Subvention and Credit Expansion: Strengthen access to MUDRA, PMEGP, and Stand-Up India for low-interest enterprise loans.

    Regional Diversification: Replicate best practices from Kudumbashree and Jeevika in less-developed regions.

    Social Empowerment Convergence: Link SHGs with Poshan Abhiyaan, PMAY-G, and Ujjwala Yojana for holistic welfare outcomes.

    Monitoring and Transparency: Use digital dashboards under DAY-NRLM to track financial performance and social outcomes.

    SHGs can transform India’s rural development landscape from beneficiary-based welfare to participatory empowerment, aligning with the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat and inclusive growth.

  • National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.

    The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, introduced after 34 years, aims to transform the Indian education system to make it equitable, inclusive, and globally competitive.

    NEP 2020 in alignment with SDG-4

    Free and Universal Education

    NEP promotes free primary and secondary education and universal literacy.

    Targets universalisation of education with 100% Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) by 2030.

    Proposes extension of Right to Education up to 18 years.

    Elimination of Discrimination in Education (SDG 4.5) – Focuses on inclusion of 2 crore out-of-school children into mainstream education.

    Equal Access to Quality Pre-primary Education (SDG 4.2)

    Affordable and Quality Vocational Training for Women (SDG 4.3)

    Qualified and Trained Teachers (SDG 4.c) – NEP proposes National Professional Standards for Teachers and regular training.

    Reorientation and Restructuring of the Indian Education System

    School Education Reforms

    5+3+3+4 model aligns learning outcomes with cognitive development stages.

    National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat) ensures universal literacy by Grade 3.

    Integration of vocational training from Class 6 bridges the gap between education and employability.

    Higher Education Transformation

    Vision to create a multidisciplinary and research-driven system with HECIs (Higher Education Commission of India) as a single regulator.

    Establishment of National Research Foundation (NRF) to boost innovation.

    Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) target of 50% by 2035-aligns with SDG-4’s focus on higher education accessibility.

    Technology Integration – Creation of National Educational Technology Forum (NETF) and expansion of DIKSHA platform for digital content.

    Focus on Teachers – Teacher education to become integrated and professionalized (B.Ed. as a 4-year degree).

    Challenges

    Federal Issues as Education is a concurrent subject. Eg- TN opposition to 3 language

    Funding Constraints – NEP targets 6% of GDP expenditure on education, but current allocation is around 2.9% (Union Budget 2024-25).

    Digital Divide – over 40% rural households lack internet access (NFHS-5).

    Limited industry-academia linkage hampers employability outcomes of vocational programs. (only 55% employability)

    Learning poverty – Over 70% of Class 3 students cannot read age-appropriate texts (ASER 2025)

    Teacher Shortage – Over 9 lakh vacancies (MoE, 2025); only 15% of teachers trained under NISHTHA

    Poor Infrastructure in Schools – 35% of schools lack reliable electricity and digital tools (UDISE+, 2021-22).

    Way Forward

    Establish State Curriculum Frameworks (SCFs) aligned with NEP timelines.

    Increase Public Investment: Achieve 6% of GDP target with transparent utilization and outcome monitoring.

    Digital Equity: Expand PM eVIDYA, public Wi-Fi, and digital resource centers in rural schools.

    Public-Private Partnerships: Leverage CSR, EdTech collaborations, and local institutions for inclusive access.

    Teacher Empowerment: Strengthen continuous teacher training and monitoring under PARAKH assessment framework.

    If effectively realized, NEP 2020 can transform India from a literacy-focused to a learning and innovation-oriented society, essential for achieving Viksit Bharat @2047.

  • ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)’ is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times – Discuss.

    The QUAD, comprising India, the USA, Japan, and Australia, was established in 2007 to ensure a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific. In the context of the rise of ‘assertive’ China, it has undergone a strategic evolution.

    QUAD Is Not a Formal Military Alliance

    No Mutual Defence Pact – Unlike NATO, QUAD lacks Article 5-type commitment.

    Strategic Autonomy emphasis – India, especially, avoids military alliances.

    Soft-Balancing Mechanism – Focuses on shaping behavior, not confrontation.

    Diverse focus areas – USA and Japan focused on Pacific whereas India’s focus is on IOR

    Official Denial of Military Intent- QUAD is not directed against any country, but for a free and open Indo-Pacific. (PM Modi)

    QUAD’s Shift from Military to Economic-Trade Focus

    Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI, 2021) to reduce dependence on China-centric supply chains. Eg- Semiconductor collaboration and clean energy supply chains.

    Critical and Emerging Technologies – EG- QUAD working groups on 5G/6G, AI, quantum computing, biotechnology, and cybersecurity seeks to ensure secure and transparent digital trade.

    Quad Critical Minerals Initiative to collaborate on securing and diversifying critical mineral supply chains.

    Partnership for Infrastructure (PFI) promotes high-quality, sustainable, and transparent infrastructure as an alternative to China’s BRI.

    Climate and Clean Energy Cooperation – QUAD Climate Working Group focuses on green shipping, renewable technologies, and disaster resilience.

    The QUAD Vaccine Partnership (2021) aimed to produce and distribute 1 billion COVID-19 vaccines across the Indo-Pacific.

    The Blue Dot Network (BDN),, certifies infrastructure projects that meet high standards of transparency, sustainability, and quality. Seen as a counterweight to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

    Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) led by Japan, to ensure freedom of navigation, connectivity, and economic prosperity.

    Strategic and Military cooperation

    Joint Naval Exercises enhancing maritime interoperability and situational awareness. Eg- Malabar Exercise

    Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) initiative (2022) – shares satellite data for maritime security and anti-piracy operations.

    “Quad-at-Sea Ship Observer Mission” for strengthening interoperability and knowledge-sharing to address unlawful maritime activities across the Indo-Pacific.

    Defence Technology Collaboration- Partnerships in defence manufacturing, undersea cables, and maritime surveillance technology.

    As pointed out by S. Jaishankar, “more focused Quad” will “help deliver better” and help realise rules-based international order