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GS Paper: GS3

  • Why stampedes take place?   

    Why in the news?

    On Tuesday, July 2, a stampede during a religious gathering in Uttar Pradesh’s Hathras district resulted in the tragic deaths of at least 121 individuals, predominantly women.

    What is a Stampede?

    A stampede is an impulsive mass movement of a crowd that often results in injuries and deaths.It disrupts the orderly movement of crowds, leading to injuries and fatalities, often triggered by panic, perceived danger, or the pursuit of something gratifying.

    Why do Stampedes Kill?

    • Primary Cause: Most stampede casualties result from traumatic asphyxia, where external compression of the chest or abdomen restricts breathing.
    • Other Causes: Include myocardial infarction (heart attacks), direct crushing injuries, head injuries, and neck compression.

    How Does Human Psychology Lead to Stampedes?

    • Panic and lacking in Cooperation: In panic-inducing situations, cooperative behavior is initially beneficial, but if disrupted, can lead to chaotic actions like pushing and shoving.
    • Positive Wish-Fulfillment Beliefs: A collective belief, rational or irrational, can mobilize large groups into actions that may compromise individual safety.

    How Does the Physical Organization of Spaces Contribute to Stampedes?

    • Factors Contributing to Stampede Risks: Lack of light, poor crowd flow management, structural collapses, blocked exits, and inadequate design of hardware (like doors and barriers) increase stampede risks.
    • Crowd Density: High density can lead to prolonged evacuation times and increased panic.

    How to Better Prevent or Mitigate Stampedes?

    • Planning and Design: Ensure adequate exit points relative to crowd size, improve crowd flow management, and use technologies for real-time crowd monitoring.
    • Communication and Coordination: Effective communication between organizers and attendees is crucial for issuing warnings and managing crowd movements.

    Notable Deadly Stampedes and Their Causes:

    • Moscow, Russia (1896): Rumors of souvenir shortages led to a deadly surge.
    • Allahabad, India (1954): Lack of crowd control and barriers led to a surge at the Kumbh Mela.
    • Lima, Peru (1963): Tear gas used during a football match triggered panic in enclosed spaces.
    • Wai, India (2005): Slippery steps during a pilgrimage resulted in a tragic stampede.

    Way forward: 

    • Crowd Monitoring Systems: Implement technologies such as CCTV cameras, crowd density sensors, and real-time monitoring software to detect and respond to overcrowding or sudden surges in crowd movement.
    • Communication Systems: Establish robust communication networks between event organizers, security personnel, and attendees. Use public address systems and mobile alerts to convey emergency instructions and warnings promptly.
    • Emergency Response Plans: Develop and rehearse comprehensive emergency response plans that include rapid evacuation procedures, medical assistance points, and coordination with local emergency services.

  • Factory accidents, a pointer to rusty inspection reform  

    Why in the news?

    In May 2024, an explosion at a reactor in a chemical factory within the Dombivli Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation (MIDC) area caused fatalities and injuries among workers and local residents.

    Present Scenario in India       

    • India continues to witness frequent fatal industrial accidents, often due to non-compliance with safety regulations, inadequate inspections, and compromised safety practices.
    • Recent incidents, such as the Dombivli MIDC chemical factory explosion, highlight the recurring nature of these accidents and their devastating impact on lives and infrastructure.
    • There is a significant disparity between the number of registered factories and the inspection rates across states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu.

    Causes of fatal industrial accidents   

    • Non-compliance with Safety Regulations: Many industrial accidents occur due to the failure of companies to adhere to mandated safety regulations and standards. Examples include improper maintenance of machinery, lack of safety equipment, and inadequate training of personnel in handling hazardous materials.
    • Inadequate Maintenance and Inspection Practices: Poor maintenance of industrial equipment and facilities can lead to malfunctions and accidents. Insufficient or irregular inspection practices contribute to undetected hazards and safety violations that increase the risk of accidents.
    • Human Error and Unsafe Practices: Accidents often result from human errors such as negligence, fatigue, or lack of training. Unsafe work practices, including shortcuts taken to save time or reduce costs, can compromise safety standards and escalate the likelihood of accidents.

    Need for the right reforms 

    • Strengthening Regulatory Framework: Reforms should focus on updating and strengthening safety regulations to align with international standards and best practices. There is a need to close loopholes and ambiguities in existing laws to enhance clarity and enforceability.
    • Improving Inspection and Enforcement: Enhancing the capacity and effectiveness of regulatory bodies responsible for inspecting industrial facilities. Increasing the number of qualified inspectors, improving their training, and implementing advanced inspection techniques like digital monitoring and real-time compliance checks.
    • Promoting Transparency and Accountability: Establishing transparent mechanisms for reporting and investigating industrial accidents to identify root causes and prevent recurrence.

    What can be the solution? (Way forward)

    • Enhanced Regulatory Oversight: Strengthening and strictly enforcing safety regulations and standards across all industries. Regular updates to ensure regulations are comprehensive, up-to-date with technological advancements, and aligned with international best practices.
    • Improving Inspection and Compliance: Increasing the number of qualified inspectors and improving their training and capabilities.Implementing regular and surprise inspections using modern technologies such as digital monitoring and remote sensing to ensure compliance with safety standards.
    • Promoting Safety Culture: Encouraging a proactive safety culture within industries through training, awareness programs, and incentives for compliance.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q What is the significance of Industrial Corridors in India? Identifying industrial corridors, explain their main characteristics. (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • Why has SEBI accused Hindenburg of breaking Indian law?  

    Why in the news? 

    Hindenburg Research received a SEBI show cause notice for short-selling Adani Enterprises Ltd stock before and after their report accusing Adani of fraud.

    What is the Hindenburg Report on Adani?

    • On January 24, 2023, the New York-based Hindenburg Research accused the Adani Group of “brazen stock manipulation and accounting fraud scheme over the course of decades.”
    • The report led to a significant drop in the shares of Adani companies and the calling off of Adani Enterprises Ltd’s Rs 20,000-crore follow-on Public Offer (FPO). Adani Group denied all allegations, claiming the report was a “calculated attack on India.”

    What is SEBI’s show cause notice about?

    • Hindenburg received a show-cause notice from SEBI on June 27, 2024.SEBI alleged that Hindenburg colluded with certain entities to use non-public information to short-sell Adani Enterprises Ltd (AEL) stock before and after the release of its report, making profits.
    • The notice named Hindenburg, its founder Nathan Anderson, investor Mark Kingdon, and related entities, accusing them of sharing the report draft and building short positions in AEL futures.

    How has Hindenburg responded to the show cause notice?

    • Hindenburg dismissed the notice as an attempt to silence those exposing corruption. They stated their investment stance was legal and disclosed, and criticized SEBI for targeting them instead of investigating the Adani Group’s alleged malpractices.
    • Accusations: Hindenburg accused SEBI of pressuring brokers to close short positions in Adani stocks to protect the stock prices.

    Where does Kotak come into this picture?

    • Involvement of Kotak: SEBI’s notice did not name Kotak Bank, which Hindenburg claims created the offshore fund structure used for shorting Adani stocks.
    • Response: Kotak Mahindra Bank stated that Hindenburg has never been a client and that their KYC procedures were followed with regard to clients, with investments made by Kingdon as a principal.

    How much profit did Hindenburg earn by short selling Adani stocks?

    • Revenue: Hindenburg earned approximately $4.1 million in gross revenue through gains related to Adani shorts from its investor relationship.
    • Own Short Position: Hindenburg made about $31,000 from their short of Adani US bonds.After legal and research expenses, Hindenburg indicated they might only slightly come out ahead of break-even on their Adani short.

    Way forward: 

    • Conduct Investigation: SEBI should initiate an independent, comprehensive investigation into the allegations against both Adani Group and Hindenburg Research. This investigation should be conducted by a neutral third party to ensure impartiality and transparency.
    • Policy Review: SEBI could review and possibly update its regulations on short-selling and market manipulation to prevent similar incidents in the future. This could include stricter disclosure requirements for short sellers and enhanced monitoring of market activities.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q The product diversification of financial institutions and insurance companies, resulting in overlapping of products and services strengthens the case for the merger of the two regulatory agencies, namely SEBI and IRDA. Justify.(UPSC IAS/2013)

  • What makes mosquitoes suck blood?

    Why in the News?

    A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) 1 has suggested that a pair of hormones work together to activate or suppress mosquitoes’ blood cravings.

    Mosquito Species and Behavior

    • There are around 3500 mosquito species globally, found on every continent except Antarctica.
    • Female mosquitoes consume blood to aid in egg development.
    • After feeding, female mosquitoes lose their appetite for blood until they lay their eggs.

    Research by Michael Strand and Team

    • Strand observed that levels of the mosquito gut hormone F (NPF) spiked when mosquitoes were seeking a host and dropped after feeding.
    • Their study analyzed mosquito enteroendocrine cells responsible for gut hormone production.
    • Hormonal Mechanisms:
      • NPF levels increased before blood meals and decreased six hours after feeding.
      • Another gut hormone, RYamide, was found to influence mosquitoes’ blood lust. As NPF levels decreased after a blood meal, RYamide levels increased, and vice versa.
      • The researchers concluded that NPF and RYamide work together to regulate mosquitoes’ attraction to humans and other hosts.

    Implications of the Study

    • Controlling the Deadliest Animal: Mosquitoes are the deadliest animal on the planet, acting as vectors for diseases such as malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, yellow fever, Zika, chikungunya, and lymphatic filariasis, which collectively kill more people than any other creature.
    • Pesticide Development: The discovery could lead to new pesticide targets for preventing mosquito reproduction and disease transmission.

    Note: Mosquitoes are responsible for over 1 million human deaths per year worldwide. They transmit deadly diseases like malaria, yellow fever, dengue, and Zika virus

    PYQ:

    [2023] ‘Wolbachia method’ is sometimes talked about with reference to which one of the following?

    (a) Controlling the viral diseases spread by mosquitoes
    (b) Converting crop residues into packing material
    (c) Producing biodegradable plastics
    (d) Producing biochar from thermo-chemical conversion of biomass

  • Universe had Spiral Galaxies 4 billion years sooner than expected: Study

    Why in the News?

    A new study has revealed more spiral galaxies in the universe’s youth than astronomers had previously expected.

    Universe’s Age and Galaxy Types

    • The universe is about 13.8 billion years old and hosts various kinds of galaxies, from spiral to elliptical.
    • Astronomers believed spiral galaxies formed about 6 billion years ago, but the new study calls this into question.
    • Younger galaxies tend to spiral, while older ones have a variety of shapes, making the study of older galaxies more challenging due to fainter light.

    Back2Basics: Spiral Galaxy

    • Spiral galaxies are a type of galaxy characterized by their spiral structure.
    • They are among the most common types of galaxies in the universe.
    • Our own Milky Way is a classic example of a spiral galaxy.

    Key Characteristics:

    • Central Bulge: A dense, spherical structure at the centre composed mainly of older stars.
    • Disk: Surrounding the bulge is a flat, rotating disk of stars, gas, and dust. The disk contains younger stars and spiral arms.
    • Spiral Arms: These are the defining features, winding outward from the central bulge. The arms are sites of active star formation and appear brighter due to the presence of young, hot stars.
    • Halo: A roughly spherical region surrounding the disk, containing old stars and globular clusters.

    Formation and Evolution:

    • Spiral galaxies are thought to form from the gravitational collapse of gas and dust in the early universe.
    • They maintain their structure through the rotation of the disk and the gravitational influence of the central bulge and halo.
    • Interactions and mergers with other galaxies can distort or destroy their spiral structure, potentially transforming them into elliptical galaxies.

    Formation of Galaxies

    • As the universe cooled from a dense plasma state, hot gas formed clumps that became galaxies.
    • These early galaxies had irregular shapes and lacked disks.
    • Spiral Formation Theory:
      • The traditional theory suggested that it took billions of years for hot, thick disks to become thinner and form spiral arms.
      • The new study suggests that cooling and spiral formation occur around the same cosmic time.

    How is this verified?

    • Astronomers observe star formation in real time but study galaxy evolution through “astronomical archaeology.”
      • Understanding the fraction of spiral galaxies helps astronomers trace the biography of galaxies.
      • Infrared and optical wavelengths are used to detect early galaxies, requiring powerful telescopes due to the faint light of older galaxies.
    • Study Methodology:
      • The University of Missouri team used the JWST to study 873 galaxies and identified at least 216 spiral galaxies, some dating to 1.5 billion years after the universe’s birth.
      • Each of the six authors classified the images as spiral or non-spiral, ensuring the result is free of human bias.

    Findings and Implications

    • The fraction of spiral galaxies increased from about 8% to 48% between 3 billion and 7 billion years after the Big Bang, higher than previously observed.
    • The study challenges existing models and suggests that galaxy formation theories need to be more complex.

    PYQ:

    [2022] Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race?

  • Great Indian Bustard Recovery Plan

    bustard

    Why in the News?

    • The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) approved Rs 56 crore for the next phase of the conservation program for the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) and the Lesser Florican for the 2024-2029 period.

    Note: Both the Bustard and Lesser Florican are critically endangered, with only 140 Bustards and less than 1,000 Lesser Floricans surviving.

    Back2Basics:  Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)

    Details
    Establishment
    • Established by the MoEFCC.
    • Legal Basis: Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.
    Objective Ensure effective utilization of funds for compensatory afforestation, catchment area treatment, wildlife management, and forest resource development.
    Background Created due to the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes; aimed at mitigating the loss of forest cover through compensatory afforestation.
    Structure National CAMPA Advisory Council: Provides policy advice and ensures inter-ministerial coordination.

    State CAMPAs: Manage funds and oversee implementation at the state level.
    Fund Utilization Funds are used for afforestation, forest ecosystem regeneration, wildlife protection, forest infrastructure, and conservation activities.
    Key Activities
    • Afforestation and reforestation
    • Wildlife management
    • Forest management
    • Soil and moisture conservation
    Financial Management
    • Managed by CAMPA at national and state levels;
    • Funds are non-lapsable and specifically allocated for forestry and wildlife activities.
    Monitoring and Reporting Includes regular audits and progress reports to ensure transparency and accountability in fund utilization and project implementation.
    Legal Framework Governed by the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016

    CAMPA Guidelines.
    Impact and Significance Crucial for mitigating deforestation impacts, supporting ecological balance, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable forest management.

    About Great Indian Bustards

    • GIBs are the largest among the four bustard species found in India, the other three being MacQueen’s bustard, the lesser florican, and the Bengal florican.
    • GIBs’ historic range included much of the Indian sub-continent but it has now shrunken to just 10 percent of it.
      • Among the heaviest birds with flight, GIBs prefer grasslands as their habitats.
    • GIBs are mainly found in Desert National Park, Rajasthan.
    • Bustards face major threats, including habitat changes and collisions with power lines.
    • Protection accorded:
      • Birdlife International: uplisted from Endangered to Critically Endangered (2011)
      • Protection under CITES: Appendix I
      • IUCN status: Critically Endangered
      • Protection under Wildlife (Protection) Act: Schedule I

    What is the GIB Recovery Plan?

    • The proposal was prepared by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII).
    • The proposal includes:
      • Rewilding Bustards bred in ex-situ conservation centres,
      • Conducting detailed population studies, and
      • Developing artificial insemination techniques.

    Back2Basics: Wildlife Institute of India (WII)

    • WII is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • It was established in 1982.
    • It is based in Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
      • Functions: It offers training programs, academic courses, and advisory in wildlife research and management.

    Why such a move?

    • Indicator Species: The GIB is a key indicator species of grassland habitat, signalling the health of these environments.
    • Population Decline: The population has declined from around 700 individuals to less than 150 due to habitat loss, predation, and death by overhead power lines.
    • Supreme Court Order: The Supreme Court recognized the threat from power lines and constituted an expert committee to assess the feasibility of overhead and underground electric lines in the bustard’s habitats.

    Conservation Efforts and Achievements

    • Recovery Plan: Initial efforts began between 2012-2013 with a long-term recovery project, which firmed up in 2016 with a Rs 33.85 crore funding outlay.
    • Funding and Agreements: The project was funded by the Compensatory Afforestation Fund, with a tripartite agreement in 2018 involving the Environment Ministry, Rajasthan Forest Department, and WII.
    • In-Situ Breeding: Conservation breeding began in 2019, resulting in a founder population of 40 GIBs at the Ramdevra centre.

    Achievements at Breeding Centres

    • Successful Breeding: Eggs collected from the wild were incubated and chicks were hand-reared. The breeding centres now have a founder population of 40 GIBs.
    • Scientific Reasoning: Creating a founder population prevents extirpation and captures genetic variability. The goal is to have at least 20 adult birds including 15 females.

    Future Plans

    • Next Phase (2024-2033): The immediate next phase will run until 2029, targeting the upgradation of the CBC at Ramdevra and the development of the Lesser Florican CBC at Sorsan.
    • Population Surveys: Surveys will be conducted in Rajasthan and other range states to monitor population status.
    • Release into the Wild: The most important target is releasing captive-bred GIBs into the wild, preceded by soft release in enclosures.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to India’s Desert National Park, which of the following statements are correct?
    1. It is spread over two districts.
    2. There is no human habitation inside the Park.
    3. It is one of the natural habitats of the Great Indian Bustard.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2019] Consider the following statements:

    1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.
    2. People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) Both 1 and 2
    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • How urban expansion makes Delhi susceptible to flooding? 

    Why in the news?

    Heavy rain brought Delhi and NCR to a standstill, causing severe water-logging, traffic snarls, power cuts, property damage, and 11 deaths from structural collapses and electrocution.

    • Climate change and rising temperatures have intensified the overflow of rivers and lakes, snowmelt, storm surges (such as hurricanes and cyclones), and abnormally heavy rains. This, coupled with locational vulnerabilities, has resulted in increased instances of urban flooding.

    Principal Reasons Behind Chronic Urban Flooding in Delhi

    • Unchecked Urban Expansion: Rapid, ill-planned urban growth without considering natural topography and drainage patterns.
    • Inadequate Drainage Systems: Existing drainage systems are unable to handle high-intensity rainfall, leading to significant runoff.
    • Concrete Overdevelopment: Excessive construction on low-lying areas and flood plains, leaving little room for water absorption.
    • Destruction of Water Bodies: Reduction of water bodies that could manage floodwaters, with many converted into real estate.
    • Neglect of Water in Urban Planning: Lack of a comprehensive water masterplan that integrates water management into urban development.

    Present Scenario of Rapid Urbanization in Delhi NCR

    • Fastest Urban Expansion: Delhi is one of the fastest-growing cities globally, with its geographic size almost doubling between 1991 and 2011.
    • Population Growth: Predicted to overtake Tokyo as the world’s most populous city by 2030, with an estimated population of 39 million.
    • Urban Sprawl: Expansion primarily on the peripheries, converting rural areas into urban zones, and rapid urbanization in NCR cities like Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Noida, and Gurugram.

    Challenges and Limitations

    • Topographical Neglect: Building in low-lying areas and on flood plains, disrupting natural drainage and increasing flood risks.
    • Inadequate Infrastructure: Insufficient desilting of drains, inadequate stormwater management systems, and improper solid waste management.
    • Lack of a Water Masterplan: Absence of comprehensive planning for clean and wastewater flows, leading to issues like the flooding of new infrastructures like the Pragati Maidan Tunnel.
    • Reduction of green space and water bodies: Conversion of green spaces and water bodies into concrete developments, further aggravating flood situations.
    • Inconsistent Urban Planning: No systematic approach to integrating natural water flows and gradients into urban development plans.

    Recommendations (Way Forward)

    • Integrated Urban Planning: Develop a water masterplan that prioritizes water management in urban development.
    • Protection of Water Bodies: Preserve and restore existing water bodies to manage floodwaters effectively.
    • Sustainable Development: Implement policies to prevent construction in low-lying and flood-prone areas.
    • Infrastructure Improvement: Enhance drainage systems, desilting processes, and solid waste management to reduce water logging.
    • Public Awareness: Increase awareness about the importance of sustainable urban planning and the risks of unchecked urbanization.
    Case study: Copenhagen, Denmark has an excellent “Five Finger Plan” that integrates urban infrastructure, transport, and green spaces. The city emphasizes sustainability, public life, and sensitive development. Indian Government can consider this plane.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Account for the huge flooding of million cities in India including the smart ones like Hyderabad and Pune. Suggest lasting remedial measures. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • Digital jurisprudence in India, in an AI era  

    Why in the news?

    Generative AI’s transformative potential challenges existing legal frameworks and judicial precedents, which are inadequate for effectively governing this rapidly-evolving technology designed for a pre-AI world.

    What is Generative AI?

    • Generative AI refers to artificial intelligence models that can generate original content like text, images, videos, and audio in response to prompts or requests.
    • These models learn patterns from large datasets and use that knowledge to create new content that resembles the training data.

    Persistent and Contentious Issues in Internet Governance

    Safe Harbour and Liability Fixation:

    • The Shreya Singhal judgment upholds Section 79 of the IT Act, granting intermediaries ‘safe harbour’ protection against liability for hosted content, contingent upon meeting due diligence requirements.
    • Challenges arise in applying these provisions to GAI tools, with debates on whether they should be classified as intermediaries, conduits, or active creators.
    • The Delhi High Court’s ruling in the Christian Louboutin Sas vs Nakul Bajaj and Ors (2018) case limited safe harbour protection to “passive” intermediaries.
    • The classification of GAI tools complicates the assignment of liability, especially in cases of user reposts.

    Generative AI and Legal Conflicts:

    • GAI outputs have led to legal conflicts, such as a lawsuit in the U.S. against OpenAI for defamation by ChatGPT.
    • Ambiguities in classifying GAI tools complicate legal decisions regarding liability.

    What Does the Indian Copyright Act 1957 Say?

    • Section 16 specifies that copyright protection is granted only under the provisions of the Act, with reluctance globally to extend protection to AI-generated works.
    • Critical questions include whether existing copyright laws should be revised for AI, the need for co-authorship with humans, and the responsibility for copyright infringement by AI tools.
    • The 161st Parliamentary Standing Committee Report highlights the inadequacy of the Copyright Act to facilitate AI authorship and ownership.
    • Current Indian law allows copyright owners to take legal action against infringement, but liability for AI-generated content remains unclear.

    Steps to Pursue (Way forward)

    • Learning by Doing: Implement a sandbox approach, granting temporary immunity from liability to GAI platforms for responsible development and data gathering to inform future regulations.
    • Data Rights and Responsibilities: Overhaul the data acquisition process for GAI training, ensuring legal compliance, proper licensing, and compensation for intellectual property used in training models. Potential solutions include revenue-sharing or licensing agreements with data owners.
    • Simplify the Licensing: Licensing data for GAI is complex due to the lack of a centralized licensing body for web data. The creation of centralized platforms, similar to stock photo websites, can simplify licensing, streamline access to data, and ensure data integrity against bias and discrimination.
    • Government and Judicial Approach to maximize the benefits of GAI: A comprehensive re-evaluation of existing digital jurisprudence is needed, requiring a holistic, government-wide approach and judicious interpretations by constitutional courts. The aim is to maximize the benefits of GAI while safeguarding individual rights and protecting against unwelcome harm.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) hasinitiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • On Improving Rural Mobile Connectivity 

    Why in the news? 

    On June 6, IEEE endorsed a wireless network structure aimed at providing economical broadband access in rural areas, formulated at IIT Bombay.

    About the latest Telecom Subscription Data        

    • Urban Tele-density: Urban tele-density in India is 127%, indicating that on average, each urban user has more than one mobile connection.
    • Rural Tele-density: Rural tele-density is significantly lower at 58%, meaning only about one in two rural residents has a mobile connection.
    • Urban-Rural Digital Divide: The data highlights a stark contrast between urban and rural areas, with urban areas having much higher mobile connectivity compared to rural regions, reflecting a significant digital divide.

    What are access and core networks?

    • Access Network (AN): The AN consists of base stations that provide wireless connectivity to mobile devices within a limited geographical area. It interfaces directly with mobile devices, facilitating communication and data transfer between devices and the wider network.
    • Core Network (CN): The CN comprises centralized network equipment that manages and directs data traffic between the access network, other networks (like the Internet), and service providers. It handles tasks such as routing, switching, and managing connectivity across the broader network infrastructure.

    What impedes rural connectivity?

    • Affordability: Lower income levels in rural areas make mobile services relatively expensive, limiting access for many rural residents.
    • Cost of Infrastructure: Installing and maintaining network infrastructure like fibre optics in remote rural areas is costly and may not be economically viable for service providers.
    • Low Population Density: Rural areas often have sparse populations spread over large geographic areas, making it less profitable for network operators to invest in infrastructure deployment.
    • Geographical Barriers: Difficult terrains and remote locations further complicate the installation of base stations and backhaul infrastructure necessary for robust network coverage.
    • Urban Bias in Technology: Most advancements in cellular networks, such as 5G, prioritize high data rates and low latency suitable for urban environments, neglecting the unique challenges of rural areas.
    • Limited Research: There has been insufficient research focused on developing cost-effective solutions that can efficiently cover large rural areas with adequate connectivity.

    What is the IEEE 2061-2024 standard? (Its working and architecture)   

    • IEEE 2061-2024 aims to establish a standardized wireless network architecture for affordable broadband access in rural areas.
    • It defines a heterogeneous Access Network (AN) comprising macro base stations (Macro-BS) and Wi-Fi base stations, integrated with a flexible Core Network (CN) bypass capability.

    Architecture:

    • Heterogeneous AN: Includes Macro-BS covering large areas with potentially lower data rates, complemented by Wi-Fi base stations deployed within villages for high-speed connectivity.
    • CN Bypass: Allows direct Internet access from the AN, bypassing the centralized Core Network for certain communications. This enhances efficiency and reduces latency, catering to stationary users common in rural settings.
    • Middle-Mile Connectivity: Utilizes multi-hop wireless networks (e.g., satellites, long-range Wi-Fi) to extend connectivity over long distances where optical fibre deployment is impractical or costly.

    What is a middle-mile network?

    • A middle-mile network refers to the infrastructure that connects core network hubs to local access points, spanning intermediate distances. It uses technologies like fibre optics, microwave links, or satellites to transport data between central and regional locations, facilitating efficient connectivity over longer distances without the need for direct local access networks.

    Conclude: To bridge the urban-rural digital divide in telecom, measures should focus on affordability through subsidized services, incentivizing infrastructure investment in rural areas, promoting research on rural-specific technologies, and ensuring equitable access to advanced wireless standards like IEEE 2061-2024.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Has digital illiteracy, particularly in rural areas, coupled with a lack of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) accessibility hindered socio-economic development? Examine with justification. (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • ICEA calls for reduction in Import Duties to Boost Mobile Phone Sector

    Why in the News?

    • The Indian Cellular & Electronics Association (ICEA), representing domestic electronics manufacturers, called for a reduction of import duties in the upcoming Union budget.
      • ICEA highlighted that the growth of the mobile phone sector now depends on demand in the global market rather than domestic demand, facilitated by supportive policies like the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme.

    About India Cellular and Electronics Association (ICEA) 

    • The ICEA is the apex industry body representing the interests of the mobile and electronics sector in India.
    • It was established in 2017.
    • It plays a crucial role in shaping policies and promoting the growth of the industry through advocacy, policy formulation, and strategic initiatives.
    • Membership:
      • ICEA comprises leading mobile handset manufacturers, electronics companies, and industry stakeholders.
      • This includes both Indian and global companies operating in the electronics sector.
    • Collaborations:
      • ICEA works closely with government bodies, regulatory authorities, and other industry associations to align its initiatives with national economic goals.

    ICEA’s Key Demands

    • Reduction of Import Duties: ICEA is calling for a reduction in import duties on manufacturing inputs for electronics, particularly in the mobile phone sector.
      • Current high tariffs are increasing manufacturing costs in India by 7-7.5% on the bill of materials.
    • Alignment with Global Standards: The demand includes aligning tariffs with those of countries like China and Vietnam, which have lower tariffs on fewer components.
    • Improvement of Customs Procedures: ICEA is urging for streamlined customs procedures to prevent delays in the shipment of key components.

    Significance of ICEA’s Demands

    • Reducing import duties enhances competitiveness, boosts exports, stimulates investment and job creation, reduces trade deficit, and fosters long-term growth in India’s electronics and mobile phone manufacturing sectors.

    Key Initiatives and Programs by ICEA

    • Electronics Manufacturing Clusters: ICEA promotes the development of electronics manufacturing clusters to create a robust supply chain and manufacturing base in India.
    • Skill Development: The association emphasizes the need for skill development in the electronics sector to ensure a skilled workforce capable of supporting industry growth.
    • R&D and Innovation: ICEA encourages research and development (R&D) and innovation within the sector to maintain competitiveness and technological advancement.

    Boost in Mobile Phone Exports from India

    • ICEA Report: According to ICEA, mobile phone exports from India have doubled to surpass Rs 90,000 crore (about USD 11.12 billion) in FY 2022-23 from Rs 45,000 crore in FY22.
    • Government Targets: The government has set a target of USD 10 billion worth of mobile phone exports, with an ambitious goal of achieving USD 300 billion worth of electronics manufacturing by 2025-26, of which USD 120 billion is expected from exports.

    Major Contributors to Export Growth:

    • Apple’s Contribution: Apple is estimated to have a 50% share of mobile phone exports from India, contributing USD 5.5 billion (about Rs 45,000 crore).
    • Samsung’s Contribution: Samsung accounts for approximately 40% of exports, worth Rs 36,000 crore.
    • Third-Party Exports: Third-party exports contributed around USD 1.1 billion to the total export, comprising phones of various brands made in India.

    Future Projections:

    • Export Contribution: Mobile phones are anticipated to contribute more than USD 50 billion worth of exports by 2025-26.
    • Overall Contribution: Mobile phone exports now account for 46% of the overall electronic goods exports, according to ICEA.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] Recently, India’s first ‘National Investment and Manufacturing Zone’ was proposed to be set up in:

    (a) Andhra Pradesh

    (b) Gujarat

    (c) Maharashtra

    (d) Uttar Pradesh