The 16th Finance Commission, under Article 280, focuses on devolving funds. Amendments like 73rd and 74th mandate it to bolster state funds for panchayats and municipalities.
About 16th Finance Commission
The 16th Finance Commission of India was constituted on December 31, 2023, with Dr. Arvind Panagariya as its Chairman.
The President of India appointed the Commission in pursuance of Article 280(1) of the Constitution
How do other countries devolve funds to their local governments?
International Comparison: Countries like South Africa, Mexico, the Philippines, and Brazil allocate significantly higher percentages of their GDP (1.6% to 5.1%) to urban local bodies compared to India’s 0.5%.
Importance of Intergovernmental Transfers (IGTs): IGTs make up about 40% of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) revenue in India but suffer from unpredictability, lack of earmarking for vulnerable groups, and horizontal equity.
Financial Health of ULBs: Despite efforts by multiple Finance Commissions, financial devolution to cities in India remains inadequate, affecting city productivity and quality of life.
Why is the Census significant?
Data Dependence: The absence of the 2021 Census data makes it challenging to accurately assess urban growth and demographic changes crucial for evidence-based fiscal devolution.
Urban Dynamics: India has approximately 4,000 statutory towns, an equal number of Census towns, and a large number of effectively urban villages, which need accurate enumeration for effective planning and resource allocation.
Migration Impact: The Census data is essential to capture the significant migration to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, impacting their infrastructure and service needs.
What about cities and the Taxation system?
Impact of GST: The introduction of GST has reduced ULBs’ tax revenue (excluding property tax) significantly, impacting their financial autonomy.
Low IGTs: Intergovernmental transfers from States to ULBs in India are minimal (around 0.5% of GDP), much lower than other developing nations, exacerbating fiscal challenges.
Constitutional Provisions: Despite the 74th constitutional amendment aimed at empowering ULBs, progress has been limited over three decades, hampering urban development.
Parallel Agencies: The growth of parallel agencies and schemes like MP/MLA Local Area Development Schemes distort the federal structure and weaken ULBs’ financial and operational autonomy.
Way forward:
Enhanced Intergovernmental Transfers (IGTs): Increase IGTs from States to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) to at least 2% of GDP, ensuring predictability and earmarking for vulnerable groups.
Reform in Urban Governance and Fiscal Autonomy: Strengthen constitutional provisions to empower ULBs further, reducing dependence on parallel agencies like MP/MLA Local Area Development Schemes.
Mains PYQ:
Q How is the Finance Commission of India constituted? What do you know about the terms of reference of the recently constituted Finance Commission? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2018)
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has become a part of Project Nexus, a global initiative aimed at facilitating instant cross-border retail payments by connecting domestic Fast Payments Systems (FPSs).
What is Project Nexus?
Project Nexus is conceptualized by the Innovation Hub of the Bank for International Settlements (BIS).
It is the first BIS Innovation Hub project in the payments area moving towards live implementation.
Aim: To enhance cross-border payments by connecting multiple domestic instant payment systems (IPS) globally.
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has joined Project Nexus, aiming to interlink India’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI) with the Fast Payments Systems (FPSs) of Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
The platform is designed to be extended to more countries in the future.
About Fast Payments Systems (FPSs):
Fast payment systems (FPSs) are real-time payment systems that enable the immediate transfer of funds between accounts. Some key points about FPSs:
FPSs allow for the fast, secure, and low-cost processing of retail transactions, ensuring funds are immediately available to the recipient.
FPSs are becoming increasingly popular globally, with over 100 jurisdictions now having access to fast payment systems. They foster competition among payment service providers and serve as a gateway to additional financial services.
The design of FPSs is important, as they have public good characteristics. Factors that contribute to greater adoption of FPSs include central bank involvement, inclusion of non-bank providers, more use cases, and more cross-border connections.
The Payment and Settlement Systems Act, of 2007 regulates and supervises payment systems in India. It designates the Reserve Bank of India has the authority for that purpose and all related matters.
What are the benefits of the platform?
Standardization: Project Nexus standardizes the way IPS connect to each other, simplifying the process.
Single Connection: Payment system operators can connect to the Nexus platform once, allowing them to reach all other countries on the network without building custom connections for each.
Instant Payments: Enables cross-border payments from sender to recipient within 60 seconds in most cases.
Cost Efficiency: Provides near-zero cost for sending and receiving payments.
Growth Acceleration: Significantly accelerates the growth of instant cross-border payments by leveraging existing instant payment systems.
Way forward:
Expand Membership: Actively encourage more countries to join Project Nexus, thereby increasing the global reach and impact of the platform. (Indonesia is joining in the near future)
Enhance Technological Infrastructure: Invest in robust and scalable technological infrastructure to support seamless integration and interoperability among different FPSs.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also? (UPSC IAS/2021)
Archaeologists have discovered a 41,000-year-old ostrich nest in Prakasam, Andhra Pradesh.
Prehistoric Ostrich Nest: Details of the Discovery
The nest, identified as the world’s oldest known ostrich nest, measures 9-10 feet in width.
The nest was once home to 9-11 eggs but was capable of holding 30-40 eggs at a time.
Ostriches are mega omnivores, weighing between 90 and 140 kg and standing seven to nine feet tall.
What are Megafauna?
Megafauna generally refers to animals weighing more than 50 kg, though scientific definitions vary.
The term was first used by Alfred Russel Wallace in his 1876 book, “The Geographical Distribution of Animals.”
Megafauna can be classified into:
Megaherbivores (plant-eaters),
Megacarnivores (meat-eaters), and
Megaomnivores (who eat both plants and meat).
Historical Evidence of Megafauna
Early Documentation: Richard Lydekker in 1884 presented the earliest documented evidence of ostriches in the subcontinent, identifying the extinct Struthio asiaticus in the Dhok Pathan deposits in Upper Siwalik Hills, present-day Pakistan.
Discoveries in Maharashtra: Archaeologist S A Sali in 1989 reported ostrich eggshell beads and engraved pieces dating back to 50,000–40,000 years ago at Patne, Maharashtra.
CCMB Research in 2017: Researchers at the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) in Hyderabad established the presence of ostriches in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat 25,000 years ago.
Broader Implications and Studies
Biogeographical Dispersion: The presence of ostriches in India is attributed to bio-geographical dispersion from the continental drifting of Gondwanaland.
Late Quaternary Extinctions: The study, titled ‘Late Quaternary extinctions in the Indian Subcontinent,’ established that the disappearance of large animals began around 30,000 years ago, coinciding with the arrival of humans.
Co-Evolution Hypothesis: The study supports the hypothesis that fauna and their resilience to extinction resulted from coevolution with hominins, with geographic isolation and abiotic factors accelerating extinction.
PYQ:
[2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:
(a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.
(b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.
(c) Large-scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.
(d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.
The Union Minister of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has launched a portal documenting all animal species in India.
The Portal was launched on the 109th Foundation Day of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) in Kolkata.
Back2Basics: Zoological Survey of India
The ZSI was set up by British zoologist Thomas Nelson Annandale, in 1916.
It is the premier taxonomic research organisation in India based in Kolkata.
It was established to promote surveys, exploration and research leading to the advancement of our knowledge of various aspects of the exceptionally rich animal life of India.
The ZSI had its genesis as the Zoological Section of the Indian Museum at Calcutta in 1875.
Since its inception, the ZSI has been documenting the diversity and distribution of the fauna of India towards carrying out its mandate of conducting exploration-cum-taxonomic-research programmes.
The ZSI has published an extremely large amount of information on all animal taxa, from Protozoa to Mammalia.
About the Fauna of India Checklist Portal
The portal consists of records of more than 100,000 animal species, prepared by over 150 scientists of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) over two years.
This checklist is the first comprehensive document on faunal species in India, covering 121 checklists of all known taxa across 36 phyla, including endemic, threatened, and scheduled species.
It is a compilation of all animal species recorded in India since the 1750s, including endemic, threatened, and scheduled species.
It provides essential data for conservation and management efforts, forming the basis for all biological sciences.
Significance of Portal:
With this, India has become the first country to prepare a checklist of its entire fauna, covering 104,561 species, positioning itself as a global leader in biodiversity conservation.
The comprehensive documentation of India’s fauna aligns with Mission LiFE by providing crucial data for biodiversity conservation.
Details from the ZSI Report
A 2023 ZSI report highlights that India is one of the world’s 17 megadiverse nations, hosting around 7-8% of the world’s documented species and containing four of the 34 globally recognised biodiversity hotspots.
The report lists 641 discoveries made by scientists and experts from India during 2023 with Kerala topping the list, followed by West Bengal.
It includes 442 new species globally and 199 newly recorded species in India.
Significant Discoveries in 2023
New Species: The 2023 findings include 112 hymenopterans, 86 arachnids, 47 new fishes, 20 reptiles, and two mammals.
New Mammals: An ibex species found in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh, named Capra himalayensis, and a new bat species, Miniopterus srinii, was discovered in Kodagu district, Karnataka.
State Rankings: Kerala recorded the highest number of new discoveries with 101, followed by West Bengal with 72, Tamil Nadu with 62, and Arunachal Pradesh and Karnataka with 45 each.
About Mission LiFE
Mission LiFE, or Lifestyle for Environment, is a global mass movement initiated by India to encourage individual and community action towards environmental protection and preservation.
The detection of a Zika virus infection in Pune has once again raised concerns regarding India’s readiness to diagnose emerging infectious diseases.
Recent Outbreaks in Various Regions of India
Zika Virus: Recent cases of Zika virus in Pune and previous outbreaks in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh highlight sporadic but concerning outbreaks across India.
Avian Influenza: Ongoing outbreaks affecting poultry, with occasional human cases reported, indicating challenges in surveillance and testing.
Nipah Virus: Multiple outbreaks in Kerala and sporadic cases in West Bengal underscore the recurrent nature of Nipah virus outbreaks in India.
India’s Lack of Significant Zika Surveillance and Other Diseases
Limited Diagnostic Capabilities: India faces challenges with the absence of approved diagnostic tests for the Zika virus, relying on clinical symptoms and selective testing, which may lead to underreporting.
Surveillance Gaps: There is a notable gap in systematic surveillance systems specifically tailored for Zika and other emerging infectious diseases, hampering early detection and containment efforts.
Infrastructure Deficiencies: The country’s diagnostic infrastructure outside major institutes is inadequate, affecting the timely identification and response to outbreaks of diseases like Zika, Nipah, and avian influenza.
Dependency on Apex Institutes: Diagnostic facilities are largely concentrated in apex national institutes, limiting accessibility and delaying the implementation of crucial public health measures during outbreaks.
Impacts of Unavailability of Infrastructure
Delayed Response: Lack of accessible diagnostics delays the identification and isolation of cases, contact tracing, and implementation of containment measures during outbreaks.
Loss of Time: Delays in releasing genomic sequences and validating diagnostic tests impede the rapid development and deployment of effective diagnostics.
Way Forward (Role of ICMR)
Enhanced Surveillance: ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) should lead efforts to decentralize testing facilities, ensuring availability at district and sub-district levels.
Capacity Building: Develop accessible and affordable diagnostic tests for Zika, Nipah, and avian influenza, leveraging lessons from COVID-19 testing infrastructure expansion.
Genomic Surveillance: Establish a system for the rapid release of whole genome sequences into public repositories like GISAID to enhance understanding and response capabilities.
Collaboration: Foster collaboration with industry and research institutions to streamline diagnostic test approvals and improve preparedness for future outbreaks.
Mains PYQ:
Q COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid the management of the pandemic. (UPSC IAS/2020)
Bharat Biotech International Limited (BBIL), maker of the indigenous coronavirus vaccine Covaxin, admitted to an “inadvertent error” in patent filings. The error involved failing to include scientists from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) as co-inventors in the patent filings.
COVAXIN Story
BBIL patented the process of making a batch of vaccines from virus strains provided by ICMR-NIV (National Institute of Virology).
ICMR-NIV’s role involved extracting viruses, identifying characteristics, conducting tests, and qualifying strains for vaccine development.
ICMR funded these clinical trials with ₹35 crore and incurred costs in developing Covaxin.
In return, ICMR was to receive 5% of the royalties BBIL earned from the sale of Covaxin.
Vaccine Patents in India
In India, patents, including those for vaccines, are governed by the Patents Act, 1970, and its subsequent amendments.
This act aligns with the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) under the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Key Provisions of the Patents Act, 1970:
Patentable Inventions:
An invention must be novel, involve an inventive step, and be capable of industrial application.
Section 3 of the Patents Act outlines what are not considered inventions, which includes methods of treatment, and processes for medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic, diagnostic, therapeutic, or other treatments of human beings.
India grants both process and product patents:
Product Patents: Grant a monopoly over a specific drug.
Process Patents: Prevent competitors from using the same sequence of steps to create a similar product.
Compulsory Licensing:
Under Section 84, compulsory licenses can be issued if the patented invention is not available to the public at a reasonably affordable price, or if the reasonable requirements of the public are not being met.
Bolar Provision:
Section 107A allows the use of patented inventions, including vaccines, for the purpose of research and development to obtain regulatory approval before the patent expires.
Why was the ICMR not included?
Bharat Biotech initially excluded ICMR from patent applications because they viewed the ICMR’s role primarily as providing virus strains and conducting clinical trials, rather than being directly involved in the technical processes of vaccine development.
There might have been a miscommunication or oversight regarding the understanding of intellectual property rights and inventorship between BBIL and ICMR initially.
PYQ:
[2013] Bringing out the circumstances in 2005 which forced amendment to the section 3(d) in Indian Patent Law, 1970, discuss how it has been utilized by the Supreme Court in its judgement in rejecting Novartis’ patent application for ‘Glivec’. Discuss briefly the pros and cons of the decision. (200 words)
[2014] In a globalized world, Intellectual Property Rights assume significance and are a source of litigation. Broadly distinguish between the terms—Copyrights, Patents and Trade Secrets.
Researchers at Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram, have developed a way to make activated carbon from coconut husks, which are a common leftover from farming in Kerala. This activated carbon is well-suited for making supercapacitors.
Back2Basics: Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors, also known as ultra-capacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are energy storage devices that bridge the gap between conventional capacitors and batteries.
They store energy through the electrostatic separation of charges rather than through chemical reactions as in batteries.
This allows supercapacitors to charge and discharge much faster than batteries.
Key Characteristics:
High Power Density: Supercapacitors can deliver and accept charge much more rapidly than batteries.
Long Cycle Life: They can endure millions of charge-discharge cycles without significant degradation.
Wide Operating Temperature Range: Supercapacitors perform well in a broad range of temperatures, making them suitable for various applications.
Structure and Components:
Electrodes: Made of materials like activated carbon, carbon aerogels, or graphene, which have high surface areas.
Electrolyte: The medium that allows ionic conductivity between the electrodes, typically a liquid or gel.
Separator: A porous membrane that prevents electrical contact between the electrodes but allows ionic movement.
What is Activated Carbon?
Activated Carbon, also known as activated charcoal, is a highly porous form of carbon.
It is processed to have small, low-volume pores with increased surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions.
It is widely used for purification, decontamination, and as a filtration medium.
Key Characteristics:
High Surface Area: Due to its extensive network of pores, activated carbon has a very high surface area, typically ranging from 500 to 1500 m²/g.
Porosity: The structure includes micropores, mesopores, and macropores, allowing it to adsorb a variety of molecules.
How is it produced?
Activated carbon is produced from carbonaceous source materials such as coconut shells, peat, wood, coir, lignite, coal, and petroleum pitch.
The production involves two main steps:
Carbonization: The raw material is subjected to high temperatures (600-900°C) in an inert atmosphere (usually nitrogen or argon) to remove volatile components.
Activation/Oxidation: The carbonized material is treated with oxidizing agents (such as steam or carbon dioxide) at high temperatures (800-1000°C) to develop a porous structure.
Types:
Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC): Finely ground carbon particles primarily used in liquid phase applications.
Granular Activated Carbon (GAC): Larger particles used in both liquid and gas phase applications, such as water and air filtration.
Extruded Activated Carbon (EAC): Cylindrical pellets used mainly for gas phase applications due to their low pressure drop and high mechanical strength.
Impregnated Activated Carbon: Activated carbon treated with chemicals to enhance its adsorption capacity for specific contaminants.
Applications:
Water Treatment: Removes contaminants like chlorine, odors, and organic compounds from drinking water.
Air Purification: Adsorbs volatile organic compounds (VOCs), odors, and airborne pollutants.
Medical Uses: Used in poisoning cases to absorb toxins in the gastrointestinal tract.
Industrial Processes: Utilized in the recovery of solvents, purification of gases, and in gold purification.
Food and Beverage: Helps in decolorization and purification processes in sugar, wine, and juice production.
About Coconut Husk-Derived Activated Carbon
Coconut husk-derived activated carbon is a sustainable and efficient green solution for high-performance supercapacitors.
This material is readily available, low-cost, and eco-friendly.
It was produced by Microwave-Assisted Method designed at the Centralised Common Instrumentation Facility (CCIF) at the college.
Importance of Supercapacitors
Energy Storage: Supercapacitors have significantly higher capacitance and energy storage capacity compared to conventional capacitors.
Search for Ideal Material: Finding the ideal supercapacitor electrode material has been a significant challenge in sustainable energy storage solutions.
Research Findings:
Efficiency: Prototype supercapacitors made from coconut husk-derived activated carbon are four times more efficient than existing supercapacitors.
Cost-Effective and Efficient: Activated carbon produced using this technology is inexpensive and exhibits exceptional supercapacitor capability.
Q) “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws. (UPSC IAS/2022) Q) Examine the scope of Fundamental Rights in the light of the latest judgement of the Supreme Court on Right to Privacy. (UPSC IAS/2017)
Prelims: Q) The power of the Supreme Court of India to decide disputes between the Centre and the States falls under its (UPSC IAS/2014) (a) Advisory jurisdiction (b) Appellate jurisdiction (c) Original jurisdiction (d) Writ jurisdiction
Note4Students:
Prelims: Supreme Court on Endangered species;
Mains: Landmark Judgements by SC; Judicial Interventions;
Mentor comments: The Supreme Court in M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. ruled that people have a right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change which should be recognised by Article 14 and Article 21 of the Constitution. The ruling of the Supreme Court was rendered in response to a writ brought by a government official. The court acknowledged the complex interplay between environmental conservation, social equity, economic prosperity, and climate change. It stressed the need to balance the conservation of endangered species like the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) with the imperative of protecting against climate change.
It appointed an Expert Committee to determine the best way to protect the species. This decision aimed to support India’s renewable energy goals and climate commitments while ensuring environmental protection. However, the effectiveness of court rulings on climate change remains a question, as climate change is a complex, multi-dimensional problem that requires a holistic approach. The court’s decision to defer to the executive on certain matters related to climate change policy has also been criticized by some experts.
Let’s learn
—
Why in the News?
The Apex court’s recent decision on M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. to defer to the executive on certain matters related to climate change policy has been questioned by experts.
What was the Supreme Court’s recent Landmark Judgment?
• The Supreme Court in M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors. ruled that that people have a right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change which should be recognised by Article 14 and Article 21 of the Constitution. • The ruling of the Supreme Court was rendered in response to a writ brought by conservationist and retired government official M K Rnajitsinh, who sought protection for two endangered species namely the Lessor Florican and the Great Indian Bustard. • The court acknowledged the complex interplay between environmental conservation, social equity, economic prosperity, and climate change. • While modifying its earlier order to underground power cables in the Great Indian Bustard’s habitat, the court prioritized transmission infrastructure to enable renewable energy development to address climate change.
Present challenges along the verdict of Supreme Court:
Unresolved questions: The judgment leaves unresolved questions regarding the court’s emphasis on large-scale clean energy as the main pathway to avoiding climate harm and its potential understatement of climate adaptation and local environmental resilience.
Non-clarity: The court did not clarify how the newly recognized right against the adverse effects of climate change will be protected in practice.
Two potential approaches to realizing this right emerge:
The proliferation of court-based climate litigation, which may lead to an incomplete patchwork of protections.
The enactment of climate legislation, which can provide an overarching framework to guide future policy.
The Need for Climate Legislation in India
Absence of an “umbrella legislation” in India : India needs climate legislation that is tailored to its unique context, rather than blindly copying other countries.
Framework climate legislation can set the vision for engaging with climate change across sectors and regions, create necessary institutions, and put in place processes for structured and deliberative governance in anticipation of and reaction to climate change.
Tailoring Climate Legislation to the Indian Context should also:
create a supportive regulatory environment for sustainable cities, buildings, and transport
enable adaptation measures like heat action plans and climate-resilient agriculture
protect key ecosystems like mangroves
consider social equity in achieving these goals
A single, omnibus law covering all these areas may not be feasible given India’s existing legal framework.
Lessons from International Experience:
• Climate laws in many countries, like the UK’s, focus narrowly on regulating carbon emissions, which is ill-suited for India. • Instead, India needs an “enabling law” that stimulates development-focused decisions across sectors towards low-carbon and climate-resilient growth. • An enabling law should be more procedurally-oriented, creating institutions, processes, and standards for mainstreaming climate change across ministries and society (emphasizing both adaptation and mitigation).
Federal Factor:
On Decentralized approach: Many areas relevant to climate action, such as urban policy, agriculture, water, and electricity, fall under the authority of state and local level governments. An Indian climate law must set a framework for coherent national action and decentralize sufficiently to empower states and local governments.
On Fiscal and Governing Policies: The regional states and local governments need to be provided with information and finance to take effective actions. This would enable diverse segments of society to bring their knowledge and expertise to the table in addressing climate change.
The Way Forward:
India should learn from international experience, both in terms of what not to do and what directions to follow.
The country’s climate legislation should be tailored to its unique context of being a developing, highly vulnerable nation still building its infrastructure.
In early June, approximately 300 families were relocated from the island of Gardi Sugdub in Panama’s Guna Yala province due to concerns about rising sea levels.
What is happening in Gardi Sugdub?
Location and Community: Gardi Sugdub, home to about 1,300 members of the Guna community, is an island in Panama’s Guna Yala province.
Sea Level Rise: The Caribbean region, where Panama is situated, is experiencing sea level rise at an average rate of 3 to 4 millimetres per year. This rate is expected to accelerate to 1 centimetre per year or more by 2100.
Flooding: Annually, particularly in November and December, seawater floods houses and streets on Gardi Sugdub, despite efforts to fortify the island.
Relocation: The Panamanian government constructed 300 new houses on the mainland in a development called Nuevo Cartí to relocate affected families.
How are other island nations affected by sea level rise?
Small island developing states (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable due to their low elevation and reliance on marine resources. SIDS in the Caribbean, Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and South China Sea face existential threats from rising sea levels.
Examples of Impact: Islands such as Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, and Kiribati are experiencing significant land loss and threats to their culture and economies.
Consequences: Coastal erosion, salinization of freshwater resources, and increased vulnerability to extreme weather events due to rising sea levels, storm surges, and ‘king tides.’
How fast is the global sea level rising?
Since 1880, global sea levels have risen by approximately 21–24 centimeters. The rate of increase has accelerated in recent decades.
Causes: The primary drivers are global warming, thermal expansion of seawater, and the melting of land-based ice such as glaciers and ice sheets.
Due to the Global Temperature Increase: The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880, contributing to rising sea levels.
Way forward:
Strengthen Coastal and Environmental Defenses: Construct seawalls, breakwaters, and other barriers to protect against storm surges and coastal erosion. Restore and preserve natural coastal barriers such as mangroves, coral reefs, and wetlands to enhance natural protection.
Develop and Implement Climate Adaptation Strategies: Create comprehensive climate adaptation plans that include relocation strategies for vulnerable communities.
Mains PYQ:
Q Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard? (UPSC IAS/2022)
Denmark will impose a tax on its livestock farmers for the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by their cows, sheep, and pigs from 2030.
What is it?
Denmark plans to impose a tax on livestock farmers for greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by their cows, sheep, and pigs starting in 2030.
Tax Rates: Farmers would initially pay about $43 per metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent produced by their livestock, increasing to around $108 by 2035.
Actual Cost: Due to a 60% income tax deduction, the actual cost per ton will start at 120 kroner ($17.3) and rise to 300 kroner ($43) by 2035.
Use of Tax Collection: The funds collected from the tax between 2030 and 2031 will be returned to the industry to support its green transition. The handling of proceeds will be revisited in 2032. The proposal includes the development of over 600,000 acres of new forest areas.
How Do Cows and Sheep Produce Methane?
Ruminants like cows, sheep, goats, and buffaloes have a specialized digestive system with four stomach compartments, including the rumen. In the rumen, partially digested food ferments, producing methane.
Methane is released primarily through burping and farting as the animals regurgitate and chew cud to complete the digestive process. Ruminant digestive systems are responsible for 27% of all methane emissions from human activity.
Why Are Methane Emissions a Problem?
Climate Impact: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, responsible for 30% of warming since preindustrial times, second only to carbon dioxide. Over a 20-year period, methane is 80 times more potent at warming than carbon dioxide.
Ground-Level Ozone: Methane is the primary contributor to ground-level ozone formation, a highly irritating gas just above the Earth’s surface, contributing to 1 million premature deaths annually.
Rising Levels: Atmospheric methane levels have dramatically increased in recent years, with the NOAA reporting a record 17 parts per billion increase in 2021, surpassing the previous record set in 2020.
Way forward:
Dietary Adjustments: Introduce feed additives, such as seaweed or other natural supplements, that can reduce methane emissions during digestion in ruminants. This approach can significantly lower methane production without negatively impacting livestock health or productivity.
Improved Manure Management: Utilize advanced manure management practices, such as anaerobic digestion, to capture and convert methane emissions from decomposing animal waste into biogas. This not only reduces methane emissions but also provides a renewable energy source.
Mains PYQ:
Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC IAS/2021)
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