GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Why in the News?

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) discovered a 1,500 year old stepped reservoir on Elephanta Island near Mumbai, indicating advanced water management and maritime trade.

Key Findings

• Age: ~1,500 years old
• Shape: T shaped stepped reservoir
• Size:
  • Length: 14.7 metres
  • Width: 6.7 to 10.8 metres
  • Depth: 5 metres excavated
• 20 steps discovered so far

Why Reservoir Was Built

• Elephanta Island is rocky
• Rainwater quickly flows into sea
• Reservoir helped:
  • Store rainwater
  • Ensure water supply
• Shows advanced ancient engineering.

Other Discoveries

Excavation yielded:

• Brick structure (possibly dyeing vat)
• Terracotta figurines
• Glass and stone bangles
• Carnelian and quartz beads
• Storage pots
• Stone anchors

Evidence of Maritime Trade

• 3,000 amphorae sherds from Mediterranean
• Torpedo jars from West Asia and Mesopotamia
• Used to store:
  • Wine
  • Oil
  • Fish sauce
• Shows trade with Rome and West Asia.

Coins Discovered

• 60 coins found
• Copper coins of Kalachuri ruler Krishnaraja
• Period: 6th century CE

About Elephanta Island

• Located near Mumbai coast
• Known for Elephanta Caves
• Dedicated to Lord Shiva
• Period: 5th century CE
• UNESCO World Heritage Site

[2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs? (a) Dholavira (b) Kalibangan (c) Rakhigarhi (d) Ropar

Why in the News?

The Samrat Samprati Museum was inaugurated in Koba, Gandhinagar on Mahavir Jayanti, highlighting the role of Samrat Samprati, grandson of Ashoka, in spreading Jainism.

Mauryan Dynasty and Religion

Ashoka and Buddhism

• Ashoka ruled: 269–232 BCE
• Adopted Buddhism after Kalinga War
• Spread Buddhism:
  • Sri Lanka
  • Southeast Asia
  • Central Asia
• Promoted ethical kingship and Dhamma

Jain Connections in Mauryan Dynasty

Chandragupta Maurya

• Founder of Mauryan Empire
• According to Jain tradition:
  • Converted to Jainism
  • Migrated to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka)
  • Practised Sallekhana (fast unto death)
• Ashoka’s First Wife
  • Padmavati believed to be Jain

Who Was Samrat Samprati

• Grandson of Ashoka
• Son of Kunala
• Ruled: c. 230–220 BCE
• Associated with Shvetambara Jain tradition
• Often called: “Ashoka of Jainism”

[2018] With reference to the religious practices in India, the “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to: (a) Buddhism (b) Jainism (c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism

Why in the News?

On March 28, 2026, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) Patna Circle officially commenced a large-scale scientific excavation at the Balirajgarh site in the Madhubani district of Bihar. The project aims to uncover the “virgin soil” to determine the earliest human habitation and explore the site’s potential links to the Iron Age Videha Kingdom and the ancient civilization of Mithila.

Key Highlights of the Balirajgarh Site

• Location: Situated in the Babubarhi block of Madhubani district, Bihar.
• Historical Identity: Locally known as Raja Bali Ka Garh, it is traditionally believed to be the capital of the legendary King Bali and a major administrative hub of the ancient Videha Kingdom.
• Archaeological Status: Declared a protected site of national importance by the ASI in 1938.
• Site Features: The site spans approximately 176 acres and features a massive brick fortification and over 20 archaeological mounds.

[2023] With reference to the Indian History, Alexander Rea, A.H. Longhurst, Robert Sewell, James Burgess and Walter Elliot were associated with  (a) archaeological excavations (b) establishment of English Press in Colonial India (c) establishment of Churches in Princely States (d) construction of railways in Colonial India

Why in the News

• The festival Masi Magam highlights the cultural and spiritual practices of the Irular community, a Scheduled Tribe in Tamil Nadu.

What is Masi Magam

• Celebrated in Tamil month of Masi (Feb–March)
• Occurs on full moon day (Magam star)
• Associated with:
  • Ritual bathing in sea and water bodies
  • Temple festivals across Tamil Nadu

About Irular Community

• Recognised as a Scheduled Tribe in Tamil Nadu
• Known for:
  • Traditional ecological knowledge
  • Snake handling
  • Herbal medicine
  • Honey collection
• Socio-economic condition:
  • Marginalised, with some history of bonded labour

[2019] Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:  1.PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.  2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.  3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.  4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.  Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4

Why in the News

• World Sparrow Day (March 20) highlights declining sparrow populations and their cultural significance, especially in Sikh tradition.

Sparrow: Ecological Importance

• One of the most common birds in human settlements
• Plays role in:
  • Insect control
  • Maintaining urban biodiversity
• Decline linked to:
  • Urbanisation
  • Loss of nesting spaces
  • Pollution

‘Chidi’ in Sikh Tradition

Symbolism

• Sparrow (‘chidi’) represents: Ordinary, weak, or downtrodden people

Spiritual Meaning

• In Sikh philosophy: Even the weakest can become powerful through divine grace and courage

Cultural Expression

• Sikh teachings, especially in: Guru Granth Sahib
• Use nature imagery: Birds, animals, insects
  • Reflects rural Punjabi life and ethics

Famous Metaphor

• Linked with Sikh ethos: “Making sparrows fight hawks”
• Symbolises: Empowerment of the weak against the strong

Broader Insight

• Sparrow is not just a bird but: A moral and spiritual metaphor
• Shows connection between: Nature and religious philosophy

[2013] Consider the following Bhakti Saints:  1. Dadu Dayal  2. Guru Nanak  3. Tyagaraja  Which among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi Dynasty fell and Babur took over?  (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2

Why in the News

• A study published in Science Advances (March 2026) finds that Mohenjo-daro exhibited collective (democratic-like) governance, comparable to Athens and Republican Rome.

About Mohenjo-daro

• Part of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
• Located in present-day Sindh (Pakistan)
• Known for:
  • Advanced urban planning (grid system)
  • Drainage and sanitation systems
  • Lack of clear evidence of centralized monarchy

Key Findings of the Study

1. Democracy Beyond Greece & Rome

• Democratic/collective governance was not unique to Europe
• Similar systems found in:
  • North America: Iroquois Confederacy, Zuni
  • Mesoamerica: Teotihuacan, Monte Albán, Tlaxcala
  • South Asia: Mohenjo-daro

2. Two Dimensions of Governance

Researchers used two parameters:

• Power concentration: Whether authority is centralized or dispersed
• Inclusiveness: Degree of public participation in governance

3. Indicators of Collective Governance

• Urban planning features:
  • Large open public spaces (for gatherings)
  • Absence of palaces or grand royal tombs
• Art & architecture: Limited glorification of rulers
  • It shows Shared decision-making systems

4. Indicators of Autocracy

• Monumental: Palaces, pyramids, elite tombs
• City layouts: Roads converging to ruler’s residence
• Rituals: Grand spectacles reinforcing ruler authority

5. “Autocracy Index”

• Study created a spectrum:
  • From highly autocratic → highly collective
  • Mohenjo-daro ranked towards collective governance

6. Role of Economic Structure (Key Insight)

• Autocratic societies:
  • Based on controlled resources
    (mines, trade routes, war plunder)
• More democratic societies:
  • Based on: Broad taxation and Community labour

7. Inequality Link

• Inclusive systems: Lower economic inequality
• Challenges assumption: Complexity always leads to autocracy

Broader Significance

• Democracy has deep, global historical roots
• Challenges Eurocentric view: That democracy began only in Greece & Rome
• Important for modern governance: Helps understand power concentration & inequality trends

[2013] Which of the following characterizes/characterize the people of Indus Civilization?  1. They possessed great palaces and temples. They worshipped both male and female deities.  2. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.  Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of the statements given above is correct

Why in the News

New books in the India@75 series are bringing attention to overlooked scientists, freedom fighters, and social leaders, such as Anna Mani, whose contributions had received limited public recognition.

About the India@75 Series

• Launched during Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav.
• The series aims to document India’s historical journey before and after independence.
• Categories in the Series: The books are divided into four themes: People, Places, Events, and Themes

Focus on Unsung Personalities

• Under the People category, the series highlights both famous and lesser known figures such as:
  • Anna Mani
  • Janaki Ammal
  • Dhyan Chand
  • Minoo Masani
  • Rani Chennamma

Anna Mani

• Known as India’s “weather woman.”
• Designed and standardised more than 100 meteorological instruments.
• Contributed significantly to meteorology, solar radiation research, and wind energy studies.

Janaki Ammal

• Full name: Edavaleth Kakkat Janaki Ammal (1897–1984).
• One of India’s first women botanists and cytogeneticists.
• Known for pioneering work in plant breeding and genetics.

Dhyan Chand

• Born: 1905, Prayagraj; died: 1979.
• Known as the “Wizard of Hockey.”
• One of the greatest hockey players in history.

Minoo Masani

• Full name: Minocher Rustom Masani (1905–1998).
• A prominent Indian liberal political leader and writer.
• Co-founder of the Swatantra Party in 1959 with C. Rajagopalachari.
• Advocated free markets, individual liberty, and democratic values.

Rani Chennamma

• Born: 1778 in present-day Karnataka.
• Queen of the Kittur.
• Role in Freedom Struggle: Led an armed rebellion against the British East India Company in 1824.
  • Opposed the British refusal to recognize her adopted heir to the throne.

[2023] Consider the following pairs with regard to sports awards: 1. Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award : For the most spectacular and outstanding performance by a sportsperson over period of last four years 2. Arjuna Award : For the lifetime achievement by a sportsperson 3. Dronacharya Award : To honour eminent coaches who have successfully trained sportspersons or teams 4. Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puraskar : To recognize the contribution made by sportspersons even after their retirement How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

Why in the News

The Ashmolean Museum has returned a 16th century bronze statue of Thirumangai Alvar to the Government of India after provenance research confirmed that the idol originally belonged to the Sundararaja Perumal Temple in Tamil Nadu.

Key Facts

• The statue was handed over to the Indian High Commission in London.
• The Ashmolean Museum had acquired the idol in 1967 from a private collector J.R. Belmont.
• Provenance research linked the statue to a 1957 photograph from the temple archives preserved by the Institut Français de Pondichéry and the École française d’Extrême-Orient.
• In 2020, the temple authorities filed a police complaint after discovering that the original idol had been replaced with a replica.

About Thirumangai AlvarOne of the 12 Alvars, the Tamil poet-saints devoted to Lord Vishnu.Associated with the Bhakti movement in South India.His hymns are part of the Divya Prabandham, an important Vaishnavite devotional text.

Significance of the Repatriation

• Restoration of stolen cultural heritage to its original religious context.
• Demonstrates growing global cooperation against illicit trafficking of antiquities.
• Strengthens India’s efforts to recover temple idols and artefacts smuggled abroad.

Prelims Pointers

• Alvars: Tamil Vaishnavite saints who composed devotional hymns to Vishnu.
• Major Alvar texts compiled in Nalayira Divya Prabandham.
• Idol repatriation often occurs through provenance research and diplomatic negotiations.

[2022] The world’s second tallest statue in sitting pose of Ramanuja was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of India at Hyderabad recently. Which one of the following statements correctly represents the teachings of Ramanuja? (a) The best means of salvation was devotion. (b) Vedas are eternal, self-existent and wholly authoritative. (c) Logical arguments were essential means for the highest bliss. (d) Salvation was to be obtained through meditation.

Why in the News

A recent feature highlights lesser known Hoysala era temples and basadis in rural parts of Hassan, Mandya and Mysuru districts of Karnataka, drawing attention to the architectural and cultural legacy beyond the famous sites.

About the Hoysala Dynasty

• The Hoysala dynasty ruled parts of present day Karnataka between the 11th and 14th centuries. Their rule is known for:
  • Temple architecture in soapstone
  • Intricate sculptural detailing
  • Fusion of Shaiva, Vaishnava and Jain traditions
• Prominent rulers include:
  • Veera Ballala II
  • Vira Someshwara

Key Architectural Features

• Material: Built using soft chloritic schist, commonly called soapstone. 
• Platform: Temples rest on star shaped raised platform called Jagati
• Temple Plans
  • Ekakuta: Single shrine
  • Dvikuta: Two shrines
  • Trikuta: Three shrines
  • Panchakuta: Five shrines
• Sculptural Elements
  • Friezes depicting epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata
  • Celestial dancers
  • Finely lathe turned pillars
  • Elephant processions

Important Sites  

• Halebidu: Hoysaleswara Temple. Jain Basadi complex including Parshvanatha, Shantinatha and Adinatha shrines
• Belur: Chennakeshava Temple
• Somanathapura: Keshava Temple
• Doddagaddavalli: Lakshmidevi Temple. One of the earliest surviving Hoysala temples, built in 1114 CE
• Koravangala: Nageshwara, Govindeshwara and Bucheshwara temples
• Hulikere: Hulikere Kalyani. Stepwell architecture linked symbolically with zodiac and nakshatras. 

[2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO: 1. Shantiniketan  2. Rani-ki-Vav  3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas  4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya  How many of the above properties were included in 2023?  (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister inaugurated the new Prime Minister’s Office complex named Seva Teerth and two Central Secretariat buildings called Kartavya Bhavan 1 and 2 in New Delhi. A commemorative stamp and coin were also released on the occasion.

Key Highlights

• New PMO named Seva Teerth
• Two new Secretariat buildings named Kartavya Bhavan 1 and 2
• Aim to reflect citizen centric governance and Viksit Bharat vision
• Replaces space constrained functioning from North Block and South Block

About the Architectural Context

• Colonial Era Buildings: North Block and South Block.
• Built during the British era when the capital shifted from Kolkata to Delhi in 1912. Designed to represent imperial authority.

Features of the New Complex

• Built using white and red sandstone inspired by Indian civic traditions
• Domes inspired by Buddhist Stupa architecture
• Entrance design draws from Chalukyan temple stone screen work
• Plinth band inspired by the 12th century Chennakeshava Temple

[2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements: 1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.  2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.  3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition.  How many of the statements given above are correct?  (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None