GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Heavy floods in Pakistan has pushed the archeological site of Mohenjo Daro – near the bank of the Indus river – to the “brink of extinction”.

What is the news?

• Pakistan’s Department of Archaeology has said that Mohenjo Daro might be removed from the world heritage list, if urgent attention towards its conservation and restoration is not given.

About Mohenjo Daro

• Mohenjo Daro, a group of mounds and ruins, is a 5000-year-old archaeological site located about 80-km off the city of Sukkur.
• It comprises the remnants of one of two main centres of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, the other one being Harappa, located 640 km to the northwest, in Punjab province.
• Mohenjo Daro, which means ‘mound of the dead’, was one of the oldest cities of the world.
• Known to be a model planned city of the ancient civilisation, the houses here had bathrooms, toilets and drainage system.
• The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests a high level of social organization.
• Though in ruins, the walls and brick pavements in the streets are still in a preserved condition.

How did it came to prominance

• The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years, until 1920, when archaeologist RD Banerji visited the site.
• Its excavation started in 1921 and continued in phases till 1964-65.
• The site went to Pakistan during Partition.

Other Indus Valley sites

• The Indus Valley Civilisation spanned much of what is now Pakistan and the northern states of India (Gujarat, Haryana and Rajasthan), even extending towards the Iranian border.
• Its major urban centres included Harappa and Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan, and Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi in India.
• Mohenjo Daro is considered the most advanced city of its time, with sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning.
• When the Indus Valley Civilisation went into sudden decline around 19th century BC, Mohenjo Daro was abandoned.

What next for the site

• According to media reports, many streets and sewerage drains of the historical ruins have been badly damaged due to the floods.
• However, the work of removing the sediments deposited due the flooding is still underway.
• But if this kind of flooding happens again, the heritage site may once again get buried under the ground, archaeologists say.
• It is expected that UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres will visit the site during his visit to Pakistan on September 11.
• The visit might provide some clarity on if the site has lost some of its attributes that are necessary for it to retain its prestigious world heritage tag.

Losing world heritage tag

• There are around 1,100 UNESCO listed sites across its 167 member countries.
• Last year, the World Heritage Committee decided to delete the property ‘Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City’ (UK) from the World Heritage List.
• This was due to the irreversible loss of attributes conveying the outstanding universal value of the property.
• Liverpool was added to the World Heritage List in 2004 in recognition of its role as one of the world’s major trading centres in the 18th and 19th centuries – and its pioneering dock technology, transport systems and port management.
• Before that, the first venue to be delisted by the UNESCO panel was the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in Oman, in 2007, after concerns over poaching and habitat degradation.
• Another site to be removed from the World Heritage list in 2009 was Elbe Valley in Dresden, Germany, after the construction of the Waldschloesschen road bridge across the Elbe River.

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Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

• A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area, selected by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance, which is legally protected by international treaties.
• The sites are judged to be important for the collective and preservative interests of humanity.
• To be selected, a WHS must be an already-classified landmark, unique in some respect as a geographically and historically identifiable place having special cultural or physical significance (such as an ancient ruin or historical structure, building, city, complex, desert, forest, island, lake, monument, mountain, or wilderness area).
• It may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet.
• The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored/uncontrolled/unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence.
• The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 “states parties” that are elected by their General Assembly.

UNESCO World Heritage Committee

• The World Heritage Committee selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.
• It monitors the state of conservation of the World Heritage properties, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
• It is composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
• India is NOT a member of this Committee.

 

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In May this year, some pilgrims offered prayers inside the Martand Temple, an Archaeological Survey of India-protected (ASI) monument

About Martand Sun Temple

• The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley.
• It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity.
• The temple was destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri in a bid to undertake mass conversion and execution of Hindus in the valley.
• According to Kalhana, the Temple was commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida in the eighth century AD.
• The temple is built on top of a plateau from where one can view whole of the Kashmir Valley.
• From the ruins the visible architecture seems to be blended with the Gandharan, Gupta and Chinese forms of architecture.

Why in news now?

• According to ASI, prayers are allowed at its protected sites only if they were “functioning places of worship” at the time it took charge of them.
• No religious rituals can be conducted at non-living monuments where there has been no continuity of worship when it became an ASI-protected site.

What are the living/non-living monument?

• If some activity, like any kind of worship, has been going on for years in the structure, then it is taken over as a living monument.
• But where no activity has taken place, say an abandoned building, then it is declared a dead monument.
• The latter is difficult to restore because it is generally covered by a lot of overgrowth.
• The best-known example of a living ASI monument is the Taj Mahal in Agra, where namaz is held every Friday.

 

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The Vice Chancellor of a renowned university recently criticized the Manusmriti, the ancient Sanskrit text, over its gender bias.

What is the news?

• The VC said that the Manusmriti has categorised all women as shudras, which is extraordinarily regressive.

What is Manusmriti?

• The Mānavadharmaśāstra, also known as Manusmriti or the Laws of Manu, is a Sanskrit text belonging to the Dharmaśāstra literary tradition of Hinduism.
• Composed sometime between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE, the Manusmriti is written in sloka verses, containing two non-rhyming lines of 16 syllabus each.
• The text is attributed to the mythical figure of Manu, considered to be ancestor of the human race in Hinduism.
• There has been considerable debate between scholars on the authorship of the text.
• Many have argued that it was compiled by many Brahmin scholars over a period of time.
• However, Indologist Patrick Olivelle argues that Manusmṛiti’s “unique and symmetrical structure,” means that it was composed by a “single gifted individual,” or by a “strong chairman of a committee” with the aid of others.

What is the text about?

(A) Social aspects

• The Manusmriti is encyclopaedic in scope, covering subjects such as the social obligations and duties of the various castes and of individuals in different stages of life.
• It seeks to govern the suitable social and sexual relations of men and women of different castes, on taxes, the rules for kingship, on maintaining marital harmony and the procedures for settling everyday disputes.
• At its core, the Manusmriti discusses life in the world, how it is lived in reality, as well as how it ought to be.

(B) Political aspects

• They argue that the text is about dharma, which means duty, religion, law and practice.
• It also discusses aspects of the Arthashashtra, such as issues relating to statecraft and legal procedures.
• The aim of the text is to present a blueprint for a properly ordered society under the sovereignty of the king and the guidance of Brahmins.
• It was meant to be read by the priestly caste and Olivelle argues that it would likely have been part of the curriculum for young Brahmin scholars at colleges.

What is its significance?

• By the early centuries of the Common Era, Manu had become, and remained, the standard source of authority in the orthodox tradition for that centrepiece of Hinduism, varṇāśrama-dharma (social and religious duties tied to class and stage of life)”.
• Indologists argue that it was a very significant text for Brahmin scholars — it attracted 9 commentaries by other writers of the tradition, and was cited by other ancient Indian texts far more frequently than other dharmaśāstra.

How did colonists consider this text?

• European Orientalists considered the Manusmṛiti to be of great historical and religious significance as well. It was the first Sanskrit text to be translated into a European language, by the British philologist Sir William Jones in 1794.
• Subsequently, it was translated into French, German, Portuguese and Russian, before being included in Max Muller’s edited volume, Sacred Books of the East in 1886.
• For colonial officials in British India, the translation of the book served a practical purpose.
• In 1772, Governor-General Warren Hastings decided to implement laws of Hindus and Muslims that they believed to be “continued, unchanged from remotest antiquity.
• For Hindus, the dharmasastras were to play a crucial role, as they were seen by the British as ‘laws,’ whether or not it was even used that way in India.

Why is it controversial?

• The ancient text has 4 major divisions: 1) Creation of the world. 2) Sources of dharma. 3) The dharma of the four social classes. 4) Law of karma, rebirth, and final liberation.
• The third section is the longest and most important section.
• The text is deeply concerned with maintaining the hierarchy of the four-fold varna system and the rules that each caste has to follow.
• Then, the Brahmin is assumed to be the perfect representative of the human race.
• While Shudras, who are relegated to the bottom of the order, are given the sole duty of serving the ‘upper’ castes.
• Some verses also contain highly prejudicial sentiments against women on the basis of their birth.
• There are many verses in the text that are considered highly controversial.

Dr. Ambedkar and Manusmriti

• On December 25, 1927, Dr B R Ambedkar had famously burned the Manusmṛiti, which he saw as a source of gender and caste oppression.
• However, he widely acknowledged that Manusmriti is NOT a religious decree but a social doctrine, manipulated since centuries to normalize oppression of the population.

 

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Some residents of Liverpool in the UK are marveling over a mandala art the size of one and a half football pitches in length created by artist James Brunt with materials such as leaves and rocks.

What is Mandala Art?

• Literally meaning “circle” or “centre” in Sanskrit, a mandala art is defined by a geometric configuration that usually incorporates the circular shape in some form.
• Mandala patterns are a centuries-old motif that are used to depict the cosmos, and have been adapted by artists the world over, each of whom have added their own interpretation and painted it as their own.
• While it can also be created in the shape of a square, a mandala pattern is essentially interconnected.

Its origin

• It is believed to be rooted in Buddhism, appearing in the first century BC in India.
• In Hinduism, the mandala imagery first appeared in Rig Veda (1500 – 500 BCE).
• Over the next couple centuries, Buddhist missionaries travelling along the Silk Road took it to other regions.
• By the sixth century, mandalas have been recorded in China, Korea, Japan, Indonesia and Tibet.

The meaning of the motif

• It is believed that by entering the mandala and moving towards its center, one is guided through the cosmic process of transforming the universe .
• It depicts transition from one of suffering to that of joy.
• A traditional Buddhist mandala, a circular painting drawn with coloured sand, aided in meditation, with the main objective of aiding its creator to discover their true self.
• In Hinduism, a mandala or yantra is in the shape of a square with a circle at its center.
• There are various elements incorporated within the mandala, each of which has its own meaning.
• For instance, the eight spokes of the wheel (the dharmachakra) represent the eightfold path of Buddhism, the lotus flower depicts balance, and the sun represents the universe.
• Facing up, triangles represent action and energy, and facing down, they represent creativity and knowledge.

Mandala in modern Indian art

• Deep-rooted in ancient philosophy, the mandala has attained varied forms in the hands of modern and contemporary Indian artists.
• While it continues to appear in thangka paintings, it has a central place in the practice of mainstream artists associated with the tantric and neo-tantric spiritual movements.
• Choosing to transition from the more figurative depictions of the previous generations of Indian artists, in the 1960s Sohan Qadri and Prafulla Mohanty gained widespread recognition for their works.
• Their work is imbibed in tantric symbolism, such as mandalas that are also used in the rituals of tantric initiation.
• Geometric compositions also dominated works of artists such as Biren De, GR Santosh, Shobha Broota, and famously SH Raza, who visualised the bindu as the center of his universe and the source of energy and life.

 

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Ahead of the 175th birth anniversary fete of the legendary artist Raja Ravi Varma, erstwhile royal family of Kilimanoor has urged the Union government to posthumously confer the Bharat Ratna, the country’s highest civilian award, on him.

Raja Ravi Varma

• Raja Ravi Varma was born in April 1848 in Kilimanoor, Kerala, to a family which was very close to the royals of Travancore.
• Often referred to as the father of modern Indian art, he is widely known for his realistic portrayal of Indian gods and goddesses.
• While he majorly painted for the royalty, he is also credited for taking art to the masses with his prints and oleographs.
• At a young age, he would draw animals and everyday scenes on the walls in indigenous colours made from natural materials such as leaves, flowers and soil.
• His uncle, Raja Raja Varma, noticed this and encouraged his talent.
• Patronised by Ayilyam Thirunal, the then ruler of Travancore, he learnt watercolour painting from the royal painter Ramaswamy Naidu, and later trained in oil painting from Dutch artist Theodore Jensen.

How he become an artist of the royals?

• Varma became a much sought-after artist for the aristocrats and was commissioned several portraits in late 19th century.
• Arguably, at one point, he became so popular that the Kilimanoor Palace in Kerala opened a post office due to the sheer number of painting requests that would come in for him.
• He travelled across India extensively, for work and inspiration.

Fame as a notable painter

• Following a portrait of Maharaja Sayajirao of Baroda, he has commissioned 14 Puranic paintings for the Durbar Hall of the new Lakshmi Vilas Palace at Baroda.
• Depicting Indian culture, Varma borrowed from episodes of Mahabharata and Ramayana for the same.
• He also received patronage from numerous other rulers, including the Maharaja of Mysore and Maharaja of Udaipur.
• As his popularity soared, the artist won an award for an exhibition of his paintings at Vienna in 1873.
• He was also awarded three gold medals at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.

Nature of his artforms

• Much of his celebrated art also borrows heavily from Indian mythology.
• In fact, he is often credited with defining the images of Indian gods and goddesses through his relatable and more realistic portrayals often painted with humans as models.
• The depictions include Lakshmi as the goddess of wealth, Saraswati as the goddess of knowledge and wisdom, and Lord Vishnu with his consorts, Maya and Lakshmi.

How he took Indian art to the masses?

• Raja Ravi Varma aspired to take his art to the masses and the intent led him to open a Lithographic Press in Bombay in 1894.
• The idea, reportedly, came from Sir T Madhava Rao, former Dewan of Travancore and later Baroda, in a letter where he pointed out to Varma that since it was impossible for him to meet the large demand for his work, it would be ideal for him to send some of his select works to Europe and have them produced as oleographs.
• Varma, instead, chose to establish a printing press of his own.
• The first picture printed at Varma’s press was reportedly The Birth of Shakuntala, followed by numerous mythological figures and saints such as Adi Shankaracharya.

Major works

• It is believed that he had made around 7,000 paintings before his death at the age of 58.
• But only one painting is now left in ‘Chithrashala,’ the artist’s studio at Kilimanoor Palace — an unfinished portrait of ‘Parsi lady’ which was his last work.
• Some of his popular works include ‘Lady in the Moonlight’, ‘Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair’, ‘Malabar Lady with Violin’, ‘Lady with Swarbat’, and ‘Maharashtrian Lady with Fruits’.

Try this PYQ:

 

There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?

(a) Bagh caves

(b) Ellora caves

(c) Lomas Rishi cave

(d) Nasik caves

 

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Back2Basics: Bharat Ratna

• Bharat Ratna – ‘Jewel of India’ is the highest civilian award of the country.
• It is conferred for exceptional Service to the nation in various fields such as Science arts, literature and recognition of public service of the highest order.
• The award can be granted posthumously and since its establishment, seven awards were granted posthumously.
• The award was established by formal President of India Rajendra Prasad on 2nd January 1954.
• The concept of awarding this award posthumously was not there in the original statute declared in January 1954.
• Provision to award posthumously was finally added in January 1966 statute of this prestigious award.
• The medallion is cast in Bronze.
• The medallion is designed like the leaf of a pipal tree with a sunburst in the centre and Bharat Ratna is engraved underneath it.

 

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A day after the National Emblem cast on top of the under-construction Parliament unveiled, controversy has erupted over its aggressive posture.

National Emblem of India

• On 26 January 1950, a representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka placed above the motto, Satyameva Jayate, was adopted as the State Emblem of India.
• The emblem is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, an ancient sculpture dating back to 280 BCE during the reign of the Maurya Empire.
• It was originally made of Chunar sandstone.
• The statue is a three-dimensional emblem showing four lions.

Features of the emblem

• The actual Sarnath capital features four Asiatic lions standing back to back, symbolizing power, courage, confidence, and pride, mounted on a circular base.
• At the bottom is a horse and a bull, and at its center is a Dharma chakra.
• The abacus is girded with a frieze of sculptures in high relief of The Lion of the North,
• The Horse of the West, The Bull of the South, and The Elephant of the East, separated by intervening wheels, over a lotus in full bloom, exemplify the fountainhead of life and creative inspiration.
• Carved from a single block of sandstone, the polished capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law.

Historical significance

• One of the Buddha’s names is ‘Shakya Simha’, meaning ‘Lion of the Shakyas’.
• The Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath was known as the ‘Simhanada’ (Lion roar) of the Buddha.

 

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Left almost unattended to for 20 years after excavation, the ancient Buddhist site on the bank of Bhima river near Kanaganahalli (forming part of Sannati site) in Kalaburagi district, has finally got some attention.

About Sannati

• Sannati is a small village on the banks of the River Bhima in Chittapur Taluka of Kalaburagi (Gulbarga).
• It came into prominence after the collapse of the roof of the Kali temple in Chandralamba temple complex in 1986.
• The collapse revealed the historically valuable Ashokan edicts written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script at the foundations of the temple, attracting historians from across India.
• While the Stupa is believed to be one of the largest of its time.
• The stone-portrait is considered to be the only surviving image of the Mauryan Emperor which had the inscription ‘Raya Asoko’ in Brahmi on it.

Significance of Sannati

• Further revelations led to the discovery of the magnificent Maha Stupa, which had been referred to as Adholoka Maha-Chaitya (The Great Stupa of the Netherworlds) in the inscriptions.
• More importantly, a sculpture-portrait of Ashoka seated on his throne with his queens was also discovered.
• Historians believe that the Sannati Ranamandal (war zone) was a fortified area spread over 210 acres, of which only a couple of acres have been excavated so far.

Try this PYQ:

In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashokan’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?

(a) Kanganahalli

(b) Sanchi

(c) Shahbazgarhi

(d) Sohgaura

 

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