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GS Paper: GS1-15.Geographical features and their location- Changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

  • In news: Pangong Lake

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Army has installed a statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj on the bank of Pangong lake at an altitude of 14,300 feet, a region that is close to the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China in the eastern Ladakh sector.

    About Pangong Lake (Pangong Tso)

    • Its name is derived from the Tibetan term “Pangong Tso,” meaning “high grassland lake.” It is an endorheic (landlocked) lake with no outflow.
    • Location & Size:
      • Spans 134 km, divided between India (1/3) and the Tibetan Autonomous Region (2/3).
      • Situated at an altitude of 4,350 meters, covers 604 sq. km, and is 5 km wide at its broadest point.
    • Water & Climate:
      • Brackish water that completely freezes in winter.
      • The lake’s color shifts with sunlight and weather, displaying shades of blue, green, and red.
    • Wildlife: Acts as a breeding ground for Bar-Headed Geese, Brahmini Ducks, and Radix freshwater snails.
    • Strategic Importance: Located in the Chushul approach, a key route for potential Chinese offensives, and was a major site of conflict during the 1962 war.

    Political Features:In news: Pangong Lake

    • Border & Control: Lies on the Ladakh-China border, with the Line of Actual Control (LAC) passing through it.
    • Contested Terrain: The northern bank is a hotspot due to differing boundary perceptions; China has built roads highlighting the lake’s strategic value.
    • 1999 Incident: During Operation Vijay, China constructed a 5-km road inside Indian territory.
    • 2020 Standoff:
      • Began on May 5, 2020, following a clash in the Pangong Lake area.
      • Disengagement on the north and south banks concluded in 2021.
      • On October 21, 2024, India and China resolved the final friction points (Demchok, Depsang), ending a four-and-half-year border standoff.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the

    (a) East of Aksai Chin

    (b) East of Leh

    (c) North of Gilgit

    (d) North of Nubra Valley

  • Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) launched

    Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) launched

    Why in the News?

    PM Modi laid the foundation stone of the Ken-Betwa River Linking National Project, the first project under the National Perspective Plan (NPP) for interlinking rivers, conceptualized in 1980. The project would submerge over 10 per cent of the core area of the Panna Tiger Reserve.

    About the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP):

    About
    • Objective: Transfer water from the Ken River to the Betwa River, both tributaries of the Yamuna.
      • Ken-Betwa Canal: Envisages a 221 km canal (including a 2-km tunnel) for water diversion.
      • Submergence area: Jhansi, Banda, Lalitpur and Mahoba districts of UP and Tikamgarh, Panna and Chhatarpur districts of MP.
    • It’s the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan (1980).
    • Targeted completion within 8 years, as per the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
    Key Components
    • It will irrigate 10.62 lakh ha (8.11 lakh ha in MP and 2.51 lakh ha in UP) and provide drinking water to ~62 lakh people.
    • Power Generation: Aims for 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar power.

    Phases:

    1. Phase-I: Construction of Daudhan Dam, related tunnels, canal, and powerhouses.
    2. Phase-II: Building of Lower Orr Dam, Bina Complex Project, and Kotha Barrage.

    Daudhan Dam:

      • Foundation stone laid in December 2024 by PM Narendra Modi.
      • 2,031 m in length and 77 m in height, submerging ~9,000 ha across 10 villages.
    • Construction contract awarded to NCC Ltd.
    Geographical Features of Ken and Betwa River Ken River: Rises near Ahirgawan in Madhya Pradesh, flows through Bundelkhand, joins the Yamuna near Chilla village in UP.

    Betwa River: Originates in the Vindhya Range (near Hoshangabad, MP), also flows through Bundelkhand, and meets the Yamuna at Hamirpur (UP).

    • Both rivers traverse hilly and plateau regions of Bundelkhand, often facing drought-like conditions.
    • Both are highly seasonal; flows depend largely on monsoon rainfall.
    Significance
    • Water Scarcity Mitigation: Aims to alleviate drought-like conditions in Bundelkhand by ensuring year-round irrigation.
    • Enhanced Agriculture: 10.62 lakh ha of farmland to benefit, improving crop yields and farm income.
    • Drinking Water Supply: Targets ~62 lakh people in MP and UP, improving public health.
    • Energy Generation: A total of 130 MW (103 MW hydropower + 27 MW solar), boosting renewable energy capacity in rural areas.
    • Bundelkhand Development: Expected to spur socio-economic growth, reduce rural distress and migration, and aid industrial expansion.
    • Template for Future Projects: As the first interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan, its success could pave the way for additional river-linking schemes nationwide.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine.

  • Salt Chimneys discovered in the Dead Sea

    Salt Chimneys discovered in the Dead Sea

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have identified unique salt chimneys on the Dead Sea floor.

    Key facts about the Dead Sea:

    Details
    Location • Located between Jordan and Israel, with the eastern shore in Jordan and the western shore in Israel.
    • The southern half of the western shore belongs to Israel, and the northern half is in the West Bank.• Divided by Al-Lisan peninsula into two basins: the northern basin is deep (400 m), and the southern basin is shallow (< 3 m).
    Geographical Features • 430.5 meters below sea level, the Earth’s lowest land-based feature.
    • Length: 50 km, Width: 15 km at its widest point.
    • Surrounded by the Judaea hills (west) and Transjordanian plateaus (east).
    Salinity and Density • Salinity: 34.2%, almost ten times saltier than ordinary seawater, making it the fourth saltiest water body in the world.
    • Density: 1.240 kg/L, which allows people to float easily.
    Inlets and Outlets • Main inlet: Jordan River.
    • No outlet, water loss occurs primarily through evaporation.
    • High salinity and harsh climate result in no life except for algae and microorganisms.

     

    About the Salt Chimneys 

    • Salt chimneys are tall, chimney-like structures made of crystallized salt, recently discovered on the Dead Sea floor.
    • They are found by researchers from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) during an underwater survey.
    • These chimneys range from 1 to over 7m in height.
    • Formation Process:
      • Groundwater from surrounding aquifers flows through old salt deposits around the Dead Sea basin, dissolving halite (salt) and carrying it as brine.
      • Despite being saline, the brine is less dense than the Dead Sea water due to its high salinity, causing it to rise as a plume from the lake bed.
      • When this brine contacts the colder Dead Sea water, it rapidly crystallizes, forming chimney structures that can grow several centimeters in height each day.

    Potential Role in Sinkhole Forecasting

    • Thousands of sinkholes have appeared near the Dead Sea in recent decades; understanding chimney formation may aid in preventing future collapses in vulnerable areas.
    • Researchers have linked the formation of salt chimneys to underground cavities, which are often the precursors to sinkholes.
    • The location of these chimneys may help predict areas at high risk for sinkhole formation, offering a way to monitor and mitigate potential hazards.

  • Barak River

    Why in the News?

    Police found dead bodies floating in the Barak River (inflicted due to Manipur Violence).

    About the Barak River:

    Details
    Geographical Location • Originates from Japvo mountain in Manipur hills at 3,015 m altitude.
    • Flows south, forming the border between Assam and Manipur up to Jirimat.
    • Flows for 524 km in India, and then enters Bangladesh as Surma and Kushiyara, later becoming Meghna River.• The river is navigable in parts, with National Waterway 6 (121 km).
    Physical Features • Length: 564 km in total, with 524 km in India.
    • Drainage area in India: 41,157 sq. km (1.38% of India’s total area).
    • Tributaries: Jiri, Dhaleswari, Singla, Longai, Sonai, and Katakhal.
    Flora and Fauna/Important Sites • Fauna: Home to over 2,000 species of fish and rare creatures like the Siamese crocodile, susu dolphin, smooth-coated otter, and black mugger crocodile.
    • Flora: Includes Varzea forest, Los llamjao, tidal forests (mangroves), Pats (flat-topped table mountains), and large tropical swamps.
    • Wetlands support farming and biodiversity.
    • Hydropower projects: Tipaimukh Dam, Tista Champamati, Dhansiri Barrages.
    • Affected by flooding and soil erosion, especially during monsoon.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following rivers:

    1. Barak

    2. Lohit

    3. Subansiri

    Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • What is DANA?

    Why in the News?

    The extreme conditions in eastern Spain which saw Valencia get a year’s worth of rain in just 8 hours can be blamed on an event locally known as Depresion Aislada en Niveles Altos (DANA).

    What is DANA?

    • Depresion Aislada en Niveles Altos (DANA), is commonly referred to as the “cold drop” in English.
    • It is a meteorological phenomenon in the western Mediterranean region that brings intense rainfall and flooding.
    • The term “DANA” was coined by Spanish meteorologists to specifically describe this weather phenomenon.

    Features and Location:

    • DANA occurs when cold air from the Polar Regions separates from the polar jet stream and descends over the warmer Mediterranean Sea.
    • The contrast between cold air aloft and warm, moist air near the surface causes atmospheric instability, leading to the rapid formation of cumulonimbus clouds and intense thunderstorms.
    • It primarily affects Spain and Portugal but can also impact Italy, France, and other areas around the Mediterranean Sea.
    • This occurs in autumn and spring, as temperature variations are more pronounced during these seasons.

    PYQ:

    [2014] The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of:

    (a) Equatorial climate

    (b) Mediterranean climate

    (c) Monsoon climate

    (d) All of the above climates

  • Cyclone Dana

    Why in the News?

    West Bengal and Odisha experienced heavy rainfall as Tropical Cyclone Dana is anticipated to make landfall later tonight.

    What are Cyclones?

    • Cyclones are wind systems rotating inwardly towards an area of low atmospheric pressure. They are categorised into Tropical (Temperature-induced) and Temperate (extra-tropical) cyclones (airmass-induced).
    • Formation Conditions: Tropical cyclones originate in warm regions, requiring conditions such as
    1. Warm sea surface (> 27°C),
    2. Coriolis Force,
    3. Pre-existing low-pressure systems,
    4. Small vertical wind speed differences, and
    5. Upper air divergence.

    Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones:

    • They form over warm water bodies due to energy derived from the condensation of warm water within cumulonimbus clouds.
    • Wind rotation is influenced by the Coriolis force, resulting in anti-clockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
    • By 30° latitude, the diminished warmth halts cyclone activity.

    What is the “Landfall” of a Cyclone?

    • Landfall occurs when a tropical cyclone moves from the sea onto the land.
    • As per the IMD, a cyclone makes landfall when the centre of the storm, or its eye, crosses the coast.
    • Landfall should not be confused with a “direct hit”, where the eyewall (area of high winds) hits land but the eye of the cyclone remains offshore.
    • According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), a cyclone’s strongest winds may still impact land even if the centre of the storm does not reach the coast.

    How long does a Cyclone Landfall last?

    • The duration of landfall typically lasts a few hours, depending on the wind speed and size of the storm.
    • For cyclone Dana, the landfall process is expected to last five to six hours with wind speeds around 125 km/h, impacting a wide region.
    • Cyclones usually weaken after landfall as they lose their moisture supply and experience increased surface friction.
    • While landfall is often the most destructive phase of a cyclone, it also signals the beginning of the cyclone’s dissipation.

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the South Atlantic and South Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the main reason behind this?

    (a) Sea Surface temperature are low

    (b) Inter Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs

    (c) Coriolis force is too weak

    (d) Absence of land in those regions

  • Baku and South Caucasus Region

    South Caucasus Region (Transcaucasia)

    Why in the News?

    • The 29th COP to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will begin on November 11, 2024, in Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan.
      • As global leaders gather near the Caspian Sea, the surrounding region of the South Caucasus faces significant climate challenges.

    Key Areas at Risk:

    (1) Regional/transboundary areas:

    • Northern Armenia and southern Georgia
    • North-west Azerbaijan and north-east Georgia (Alazani/Ganykh river basin)

    (2) Within countries:

    • Yerevan and Ararat Valley (Armenia)
    • Lake Sevan (Armenia)
    • Kura-Ara(k)s lowlands (Azerbaijan)
    • Baku and Absheron peninsula (Azerbaijan)
    • Adjara and the Black Sea coast (Georgia)
    • Tbilisi, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, and Kakheti regions (Georgia)

     

    About South Caucasus Region (Transcaucasia):

    Details
    Location South of the Greater Caucasus Mountains, bordered by Russia (north), Turkey and Iran (south), between the Black Sea (west) and Caspian Sea (east).
    Countries Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia; includes disputed territories like Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh), Abkhazia, and South Ossetia.
    Mountains Lesser Caucasus Mountains (up to 3,000m); includes the Zangezur Range, Meskheti Range, and Armenian Highlands.
    Seas Between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea; Absheron Peninsula (Azerbaijan) extends into Caspian Sea, rich in oil.
    Rivers and Lakes Major rivers: Kura River (Georgia & Azerbaijan) and Aras River (Armenia & Azerbaijan). Key lake: Lake Sevan (Armenia).
    Climate
    • Continental climate: hot summers and cold winters;
    • Subtropical climate along Georgia’s Black Sea coast;
    • Semi-arid to desert climate near Caspian Sea, especially Azerbaijan.
    Natural Resources Rich in oil and natural gas, particularly in Azerbaijan; critical hub for energy pipelines like the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline.
    Geopolitical Importance Strategic transit route for energy resources to Europe; region of geopolitical tensions due to conflicts (Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, Abkhazia).

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Turkey is located between:

    (a) Black Sea and Caspian Sea

    (b) Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea

    (c) Gulf of Suez and Mediterranean Sea

    (d) Gulf of Aqaba and Dead Sea

  • Places in News: Neom Megacity Project

    Why in the News?

    The Wall Street Journal has highlighted controversies surrounding the Neom Megacity Project, a key project of Saudi Arabia and world’s largest construction real-estate project.

    About Neom Megacity Project:

    Details
    Location Northwestern Tabuk Province, Saudi Arabia, along the Red Sea
    Launched
    • 2017 by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman
    • Part of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030.
    Objective To diversify Saudi Arabia’s economy and reduce its reliance on oil.
    Size
    • 26,500 sq km
    • Initially $500 billion, now estimated at $1.5 trillion
    Completion Year Expected by 2039
    Key Projects
    • The Line: 170-km long linear city for 9 million residents
    • Oxagon: Octagonal industrial city
    • Trojena: Mountain resort for 2029 Asian Winter Games
    • Magna: Luxury coastal city
    • Sindalah: Luxury island, opening in 2024
    Technological Focus
    • Renewable energy (solar, wind)
    • AI and robotics
    • Green hydrogen production
    Environmental Goals
    • Powered by 95% renewable energy
    • Focus on sustainable development

    Controversies surrounding the Project:

    • Displacement of Indigenous Tribes: The Huwaitat tribe has been forcibly displaced, leading to human rights concerns.
    • Slow Progress: Construction is behind schedule, with only 1.4 km of The Line expected to be completed by 2030.
    • Workplace Misconduct: Reports of toxic culture and unethical leadership, including neglect of worker safety.
    • Surveillance Concerns: Critics worry about the project’s use of real-time monitoring, raising privacy concerns.
    • Cost Overruns: The project’s budget has ballooned from $500 billion to $1.5 trillion, leading to scaled-down plans.

  • Why gold nuggets are found in quartz veins?

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have been curious about why the majority of gold nuggets discovered throughout history have been found in orogenic quartz veins.

    Location and distribution of Gold:

    • Orogenic gold systems are commonly found in mountainous regions where large-scale geological processes, such as the collision of tectonic plates, have occurred.
    • For example, the Himalayas, the Canadian Shield, and the Western Australian goldfields.
    • Large gold nuggets are often found in orogenic quartz veins formed during the tectonic processes that create mountains.
    • These nuggets form because, during earthquakes, the stress on quartz crystals causes a reaction that deposits gold on their surfaces. This process happens repeatedly, leading to the accumulation of gold nuggets.

    Note: 

    • Gold nuggets are naturally occurring pieces of gold that have formed into lumps or chunks. They are typically found in riverbeds, streams, or within rock formations, often in quartz veins.
    • Orogenic quartz veins are quartz veins that form in mountainous regions.

    Findings by Researchers:

      • Piezocatalytic Effect and Gold Accumulation: Researchers discovered that the piezocatalytic effect of quartz under seismic stress causes the accumulation of gold in quartz veins.
        • The piezoelectric quartz crystal generates an electric field when subjected to stress. 
        • This field can drive electrochemical reactions at the interface between the quartz and a surrounding aqueous solution containing dissolved gold. These reactions cause gold to be deposited on the quartz surface. 
      • Seismic Activity and Localized Gold Deposits: The study suggests that gold nuggets in orogenic systems are formed through repeated piezocatalytic reactions over time, driven by natural seismic activity. This process explains the highly localized and interconnected nature of gold deposits within quartz veins.
      Conclusion: Researchers have found that gold nuggets in orogenic quartz veins form through piezocatalytic reactions caused by seismic stress on quartz. This process drives gold deposition on quartz surfaces, explaining the concentration and localization of gold in mountainous regions.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Craze for gold in Indian has led to surge in import of gold in recent years and put pressure on balance of payments and external value of rupee. In view of this, examine the merits of Gold Monetization scheme. (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • Frequent mass wasting in Tibet a cause for worry in India 

    Why in the News?

    A recent study on frequent mass wasting in Sedongpu Gully and rapid warming raises concerns for India’s Northeast region.

    About Sedongpu Gully:

    • The Sedongpu gully (29°47′7.20′′N, 94°55′24′′E) is in the large bend region of the Yarlung Tsangpo River, located in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau.
    • Debris flows have occurred in two adjacent gullies, namely Sedongpu Gully (SDP) and Zelongnong Gully (ZLN), since the 1950s.

    Mass Wasting in the Gully: Stats and Reasons

    • Since 2017, over 700 million cubic meters of debris have been mobilized in the Sedongpu Gully catchment, with more than 68% of the total 19 identified mass-wasting events occurring in this period.
      • The events include ice-rock avalanches (IRAs), ice-moraine avalanches (IMAs), and glacier debris flows (GDFs).
    • Causes: The increased frequency of mass wasting is attributed to a combination of long-term warming and seismic activity.
      • The area rarely experienced temperatures above 0º C before 2012, but climate change has led to significant warming, destabilizing permafrost and increasing landslide activity.
      • The 6.4-magnitude Nyingchi earthquake in November 2017 also contributed to the destabilization of slopes.

    Implications of sedimentation from mass wasting events:

    • River Choking and Flash Floods: The study warns that the increased sedimentation from mass wasting events could choke river channels, particularly affecting the Brahmaputra River system. 
    • Hydropower Projects: China is planning to construct a massive 60-gigawatt hydropower project on the Tsangpo River, which could exacerbate sedimentation issues downstream.
      • This project is expected to have three times the capacity of the Three Gorges Dam, raising concerns about river management and flood risks in India and Bangladesh.
    • Historical Flood Events: Past incidents, like the 2000 floods in Arunachal Pradesh caused by landslides blocking the Tsangpo River, show how dangerous landslides can be for areas downstream.
      • The chance of similar disasters is higher now because of the ongoing geological instability in the Sedongpu Gully.

    Way forward: 

    • Bilateral and Multilateral Dialogues: India should intensify diplomatic efforts with China, advocating for shared water management strategies and transparency in hydropower projects on the Tsangpo River.
    • Real-Time Monitoring: Establish advanced real-time monitoring systems for the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries, using satellite imagery, remote sensing, and ground-based observations to track landslides, sedimentation, and water flow.

    Mains question for practice:

    Q Discuss the potential risks posed by the increasing frequency of mass wasting events in the Sedongpu Gully and the implications for India’s Northeast region. (150 words) 10M