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GS Paper: GS1-15.Geographical features and their location- Changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

  • How do monsoons affect Tamil Nadu?

    Introduction

    Tamil Nadu’s northeast monsoon, traditionally spanning October to December, has arrived early for the second consecutive year, bringing intense and localized rainfall. While excess rainfall was once viewed as a boon for agriculture and water storage, climate change has made “excess” a liability, causing flash floods, crop destruction, and structural damage. The situation is compounded by simultaneous inflows from Kerala via the Mullaperiyar Dam, creating a dual-flood scenario that tests the resilience of Tamil Nadu’s urban systems, infrastructure, and disaster governance.

    Urban Flooding: A Consequence of Unsustainable Development

    1. Impervious surfaces: Extensive concretization and asphalt paving prevent rainwater infiltration, resulting in rapid surface runoff that overwhelms drainage systems.
    2. Inadequate drainage networks: Poor maintenance and blockage of stormwater drains lead to flash floods and prolonged inundation in low-lying areas.
    3. Infrastructure shutdowns: Power authorities resort to preventive power cuts to avoid electrocution risks, compounding public inconvenience and economic losses.
    4. Sewage overflows: Heavy rainfall triggers untreated wastewater discharge into streets and waterbodies, leading to public health crises and water contamination.

    Agricultural Distress and Soil Degradation

    1. Waterlogging and root suffocation: Excess moisture damages crop roots, washes away seeds, and erodes nutrient-rich topsoil, reducing long-term fertility.
    2. Fungal and pest proliferation: Moist environments facilitate fungal infections and pest outbreaks, lowering crop yields.
    3. Nutrient runoff: Heavy rain carries fertilizers and pesticides into reservoirs, degrading water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
    4. Economic losses: Repeated crop failure translates into financial vulnerability for farmers and food supply disruptions.

    Health and Environmental Risks of Prolonged Rainfall

    1. Vector-borne diseases: Stagnant water acts as a breeding ground for mosquitoes, leading to malaria, dengue, and Japanese encephalitis outbreaks.
    2. Zoonotic transmission: Flooded environments increase exposure to leptospirosis and scrub typhus.
    3. Infrastructure corrosion: High humidity and seepage promote mold growth and building decay, undermining structural integrity.
    4. Water contamination: Overflowing sewage and agricultural runoff mix into drinking sources, causing gastrointestinal and waterborne diseases.

    Rising Flood Risk: The Mullaperiyar–Vaigai Connection

    1. Dual monsoon exposure: Kerala receives rainfall from the southwest monsoon, while Tamil Nadu depends on the northeast monsoon. Overlapping patterns cause simultaneous water inflows.
    2. Mullaperiyar Dam’s critical role: Located in Kerala’s Idukki district but operated by Tamil Nadu, the dam diverts water to Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai basin.
    3. Catchment saturation: Heavy rains in Kerala rapidly fill the reservoir, forcing Tamil Nadu to open shutters to ensure dam safety.
    4. Two-directional flooding: Released water flows both toward Kerala’s Periyar basin and Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai, creating cross-border flood pressure.
    5. Ground situation: With all 13 shutters open, Theni district faces submergence even as local rains intensify, turning “shared water” into a shared crisis.

    Infrastructure and Economic Impact

    1. Rising water tables: Continuous rainfall elevates the groundwater level, weakening building foundations and road structures.
    2. Loss of load-bearing capacity: Saturated soil causes foundation shifting, cracks, and collapses in the long term.
    3. Economic burden: Damage repair, relocation, and agricultural losses lead to high fiscal costs for the State exchequer.
    4. Social impact: Displacement, psychological distress, and livelihood loss add a human dimension to the flood crisis.

    Reassessing the “Excess is Good” Paradigm

    1. Changing monsoon patterns: Climate change is causing shorter, more intense bursts rather than steady rainfall, overwhelming absorptive capacity.
    2. Policy recalibration: Tamil Nadu must prioritize water storage optimization, urban resilience, and inter-State coordination.
    3. Adaptive planning: Future strategies must integrate real time dam management, rainwater harvesting, and climate resilient agriculture.

    Conclusion

    Tamil Nadu’s monsoon experience underscores that climate resilience is not merely about rainfall volumes but about water management capacity. Balancing inter-State water sharing, strengthening urban drainage systems, and adopting adaptive agricultural practices are crucial. The Mullaperiyar conundrum reflects the urgent need for cooperative federalism in climate adaptation, a lesson not just for Tamil Nadu but for all monsoon-dependent states in India.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Why is the South-West Monsoon called ‘Purvaiya’ (easterly) in the Bhojpur region? How has this directional seasonal wind system influenced the cultural ethos of the region?

    Linkage: The monsoon is a recurring UPSC theme. Tamil Nadu’s experience, where the northeast monsoon defines urban life, agriculture, and inter-State dynamics, parallels Bhojpur’s example. This shows how regional monsoon variations influence both ecological realities and local ethos across India.

  • Naying Hydroelectric Project

    Why in the News?

    The Naying Hydroelectric Project (1000 MW), proposed on the Siyom (Yomgo) River in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh, represents a major addition to India’s clean energy expansion under the Decade of Hydro Power (2025–35).

    About Siyom (Yomgo) River:

    • Geography: A right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra, flowing entirely within Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Origin & Course: Arises in West Siang, travels ~170 km, and joins the Brahmaputra near Assam.
    • Ecology: Basin supports rich biodiversity, agro-pastoral livelihoods, and lies within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
    • Protected Areas: Mouling National Park lies on its eastern bank, part of the Dibang–Siang biosphere landscape.
    • Hydrological Role: Ensures irrigation, microclimate regulation, and provides run-of-the-river potential for clean energy, though demanding careful ecosystem balance.

    About Naying Hydroelectric Project:

    • Overview: A proposed 1,000 MW (4×250 MW) run-of-the-river project located in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Developers: Jointly undertaken by North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO) and Arunachal Pradesh Hydropower Corporation Ltd (APHCL).
    • Design & Output: Features a concrete dam, underground powerhouse, and diversion tunnels, expected to generate 4,966.77 GWh annually.
    • Regulatory Approval: Received Central Electricity Authority (CEA) concurrence in 2013; progress slowed by environmental and social concerns.
    • Public Consultation: Environmental hearing scheduled for 12 November 2025 at Yapik Community Hall to assess ecological and community impacts.
    • Timeline: Construction targeted to start by 2028, with commissioning by 2032.
    • Policy Context: Forms part of the state’s Decade of Hydro Power (2025–2035), aiming for 19 GW capacity addition to support India’s net-zero goals.
    • Regional Linkages: Among five key hydel projects in the region – Heo (240 MW), Hirong (500 MW), Tato-I (186 MW), and Tato-II (700 MW).
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Reservoirs – States

    1. Ghataprabha — Telangana

    2. Gandhi Sagar — Madhya Pradesh

    3. Indira Sagar — Andhra Pradesh

    4. Maithon —Chhattisgarh

    Options:

    (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs”

     

  • Delhi Morphological Ridge

    Why in the News?

    The Delhi government has decided to declare 41 sq. km of the Southern Ridge as a reserved forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, following long-pending directions from the National Green Tribunal (NGT).

    Delhi Morphological Ridge

    About Delhi Morphological Ridge:

    • The Delhi Ridge is the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli Range, stretching approximately 35 km from Tughlaqabad to Wazirabad, along the Yamuna River.
    • It is composed mainly of quartzite rock, is over 1.5 billion years old, and significantly older than the Himalayas.
    • It functions as Delhi’s green lungs, aiding in carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, and air pollution reduction.
    • It acts as a natural barrier against desert winds from Rajasthan and supports rich biodiversity, making Delhi one of the world’s most bird-rich capitals.
    • It is divided into four zones: Northern Ridge, Central Ridge, South-Central Ridge, and Southern Ridge.
    • Key conservation areas include the Northern Ridge Biodiversity Park and the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.

    Land Use Regulation in the Ridge:

    • Although the area shares ecological features with the Delhi Ridge, it is NOT officially notified as forest land, but it enjoys judicial protection.
    • A 1966 directive prohibits any NON-forest use or encroachment without court approval.
    • Any change in land use must be cleared by the Ridge Management Board (RMB) and the Supreme Court-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC).
    • The area is mapped using data from the Delhi Forest Department and the 2006 Seismic Zonation Map.
    • Formal notification as a Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, is pending due to the absence of ground-truthing.
    • In revenue records, it is often marked as “gair mumkin pahad”, meaning uncultivable rocky hill.
    • The terrain is ecologically fragile, with shallow soil and rocky outcrops, making it unsuitable for construction.
    [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is-

    Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years (d) 670 million years

     

  • World’s Highest Motorable Road constructed at Mig La Pass in Ladakh

    Why in the News?

    The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has achieved a historic milestone by constructing the world’s highest motorable road at Mig La Pass, situated 19,400 feet above sea level in Ladakh.

    • Strategic Value: Enables rapid troop movement and logistics support in high-altitude sectors; promotes eco-tourism and local trade.

    What is Project Himank?

    • Overview: A flagship Border Roads Organisation (BRO) initiative launched in December 1985 to build and maintain roads in Ladakh’s high-altitude regions.
    • Key Achievements: Built Umling La Road, Chisumle–Demchok, Darbuk–Shyok–DBO, Kargil–Zanskar, and now the Mig La Road (19,400 ft) under severe climatic stress.

    About Mig La Pass:

    • Importance: Crucial for India’s border logistics network, enabling swift troop deployment, supply transport, and surveillance near LAC and LoC.
    • Location: Situated on the Changthang Plateau, eastern Ladakh, near the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China.
    • Elevation: Stands at 19,400 ft (5,913 m), now the highest motorable road in the world (2025), overtaking Umling La (19,024 ft).
    • Alignment: Lies along the Likaru–Mig La–Fukche route, forming a third strategic link from Hanle to Fukche near the Indo-China border.
    • Connectivity Role: Provides access to remote frontier villages—Hanle, Rongo, Kuyul, and Demchok—improving healthcare, communication, and supply access.
    • Geography: Part of the Changthang cold desert, with thin air, permafrost, and extreme cold, posing major engineering challenges.
    • Historical Link: Follows ancient Indo-Tibetan trade routes, reflecting Ladakh’s role in trans-Himalayan Silk Route exchanges.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

    Options: (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

     

  • India’s only Mud Volcano erupts after 20-years in Andamans

    Why in the News?

    India’s only mud volcano at Baratang Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands erupted after remaining dormant for over two decades.

    India's only Mud Volcano erupts after 20-years in Andamans

    Note: The Barren Island has erupted recently.

    • India’s only active lava volcano, located about 140 km from Port Blair.
    • Lies at the junction of the Indian and Burmese tectonic plates.
    • Eruption history: 1787 (first recorded), followed by episodes in 1991, 2005, 2017, November 2022, and September 2025.

    About the Baratang Mud Volcano:

    • Location: Baratang Island, around 100–150 km north of Port Blair, situated in the North and Middle Andaman district.
    • Uniqueness: It is India’s only collection of mud volcanoes — 11 in total across the archipelago, 8 of which are on Baratang and Middle Andaman.
    • Eruptions: Significant eruptions were last reported in 2005; the 2025 eruption marks the first major event in 20 years.
    • Composition & Nature:
      • Emits cool mud, water, and gases (methane, hydrogen sulfide) rather than lava or fire.
      • Creates mud cones, bubbling pools, or dried crater-like formations.
      • Eruptions are low in intensity, involving slow oozing and gas bubbling rather than violent explosions.
    • Accessibility: A short 160-metre walk from the nearest road; the site lies near the Jarawa Tribal Reserve, where photography is prohibited for ethical and legal reasons.

    Geological Formation and Features:

    • Tectonic Setting: Formed due to subduction of the Indian Plate beneath the Burmese Plate, leading to gas and fluid release from deep layers.
    • Mechanism:
      • Decomposition of organic matter underground produces gas pressure that pushes mud upwards.
      • These gases, along with water and sediments, escape to the surface, creating muddy eruptions and bubbling vents.
    • Temperature & Composition:
      • The expelled material is cool, unlike magmatic volcanoes.
      • Contains saline water, organic sediments, and gases, giving it a distinctive odour and appearance.
    • Earth Processes: The phenomenon helps scientists study fluid migration, methane emissions, and crustal deformation in active subduction zones.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1.The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.

    2.Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.

    3.The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3

     

  • Ganga River is drying faster than in 1,300 years: Report

    Why in the News?

    A recent study by researchers from IIT Gandhinagar and the University of Arizona warns that the Ganga River is drying at a rate unseen in more than a millennium.

    About Drying of the Ganga River: New Study Findings

    • Overview: Reconstructed streamflow since 700 AD using tree-ring records (Monsoon Asia Drought Atlas) and hydrological models. Validated against historic droughts and famines such as the Bengal famine.

    • Findings:

      • Between 1991 and 2020, multiple droughts lasted 4–7 years, the rarest in the past 1,300 years.
      • The 2004–2010 drought was the most severe in 1,300 years.
      • Post-1990s drying was 76% more intense than the worst 16th-century drought.

    • Causes:

      • Weaker monsoons from Indian Ocean warming and aerosol pollution.
      • Groundwater over-extraction reducing river baseflow.
      • Land-use change disrupting natural recharge.
    • Climate Models: Most fail to reproduce the drying trend, raising doubts about optimistic rainfall projections.
    • Implications: Severe threats to agriculture, 600 million livelihoods, Bay of Bengal ecosystems, and the 40% GDP share of the basin. Calls for adaptive water management.

    ganga

    About the Ganga River:

    • Length: ~2,525 km, the longest river in India.
    • Origin: Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand at 3,892 m elevation as Bhagirathi.
    • Formation: Named Ganga at Devprayag after meeting Bhagirathi and Alaknanda.
    • Course: Flows through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal before entering Bangladesh as Padma and emptying into the Bay of Bengal through the Sundarbans Delta.
    • Basin: Covers about 8.61 lakh sq. km, which is 26.4% of India’s area.

    • Tributaries:

      • Left bank: Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda.
      • Right bank: Yamuna, Tons, Karamnasa, Sone, Punpun, Falgu, Kiul, Chandan, Ajoy, Damodar, Rupnarayan.
    • Population: Supports over 600 million people, making it the world’s most densely populated river basin.
    • Cultural Importance: Sacred in Indian culture; declared National River in 2008.
    • Economic Role: Central to agriculture, fisheries, and trade, contributing about 40% of India’s GDP.
    • Ecological Significance: Home to snow leopard, elephants, and Ganga dolphin; includes Corbett, Dudhwa, and Sundarbans reserves.
    • Conservation Efforts: Ganga Action Plan (1985) and Namami Gange Programme (2014); persistent issues of pollution, over-extraction, and climate change.
    [UPSC 2024] With reference to the Himalayan rivers joining the Ganga downstream of Prayagraj from West to East, which one of the following sequences is correct?

    Options: (a) Ghaghara – Gomati – Gandak – Kosi

    (b) Gomati – Ghaghara – Gandak – Kosi*

    (c) Ghaghara – Gomati – Kosi – Gandak

    (d) Gomati – Ghaghara – Kosi – Gandak

     

  • India’s only active volcano in Andaman’s Barren Island erupts

    Why in the News?

    Barren Island, which is not only India’s but South Asia’s only active volcano, has erupted twice in a span of eight days.

    barren island

    About Barren Island:

    • Location: In the Andaman Sea, about 138–140 km northeast of Port Blair, within the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India).
    • Unique Status: The only confirmed active volcano in the Indian subcontinent and South Asia, lying on the volcanic arc between Sumatra (Indonesia) and Myanmar.
    • Geophysical Features: Roughly circular island (~3 km diameter); volcanic crater located 0.5 km from shore, rising to 354 m above sea level and classified as a stratovolcano made of lava, volcanic ash, and rock fragments.
    • Volcanic Activity
      • First Recorded Eruption: 1787.
      • Notable Eruptions: 1789, 1795, 1803–04, 1852, 1991, 2017, and minor eruptions in 2025.
      • 1991 Eruption: Lasted ~6 months, destructive to local fauna.
      • Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): Generally low, around 2.
    • Geological Significance:
      • Age of Flows: Oldest subaerial lava flows dated to 1.6 million years ago.
      • Crust: Built on 106 million-year-old oceanic crust.
      • Tectonics: Part of the subduction zone where the Indian Plate meets the Burmese Plate.
      • Research Value: Critical for geological and volcanic studies as India’s only active volcano.

    Note:

    Although there are no active volcanoes in mainland India, there are some extinct and dormant volcanoes in the country. These are: Narcondam Island (dormant, A&N Islands); Deccan Plateau (18.51°N 73.43°E; extinct, Maharashtra); Baratang Island (mud volcanoes; active, A&N Islands); Dhinodhar Hills (extinct, Gujarat); Dhosi Hill (extinct, Haryana–Rajasthan border); Tosham Hills (extinct, Haryana); and Loktak Lake (Supervolcanic caldera, Manipur).

    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
    2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
    3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only*

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1 and 3

  • Commissioning of Oju Hydel Project

    Why in the News?

    The Union Environment Ministry has cleared the 2,220 MW Oju Hydroelectric Project on the Subansiri River in Taksing, Upper Subansiri district, near the China border.

    About the Oju Hydroelectric Project:

    • Capacity & Location: A 2,220 MW run-of-river hydro project on the Subansiri River at Taksing, Upper Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh, near the China border.
    • Infrastructure:
      • Dam: 93 m high, 355 m long concrete gravity dam.
      • Tunnels: Two diversion tunnels, 14.17 km headrace tunnel.
      • Powerhouse: Underground, with 8 turbines of 231.25 MW each.
    • Hydrology: Catchment area 9,827 sq. km; average annual yield 11,339 million cubic meters.

    Significance of the Project:

    • Hydro Cascade: Largest in Subansiri basin, upstream of projects like Niare, Naba, Nalo, Dengser, Upper & Lower Subansiri, making it vital for basin-wide energy planning.
    • Border Security: Strengthens India’s strategic presence near China border through infrastructure development.
    • Energy Security: Provides clean power at ~₹5.65/kWh, supporting renewable targets and reducing fossil dependence.

    Back2Basics: Subansiri River

    Commissioning of Oju Hydel Project

    • Also called the Gold River, it is the largest tributary of the Brahmaputra, about 518 km long with a 32,640 sq. km basin.
    • It originates in Lhuntse County, Tibet, flows through Upper Subansiri district (Arunachal Pradesh), and enters India via the Miri Hills.
    • The Upper Subansiri refers to its Himalayan origin stretch, while the Lower Subansiri marks its descent into the Assam Valley through Lower Subansiri district.
    • It joins the Brahmaputra at Jamurighat/Majuli Island in Assam; key tributaries are Rangandi, Dikrong, Kamle, Char Chu, and Tsari Chu.
    • Known for floods, rapids, and hydropower projects like the Lower Subansiri, the river also carries cultural importance in Tibet’s Tsari region.

  • 7 Natural Heritage Sites from India added to UNESCO’s Tentative List

    Why in the News?

    Seven natural heritage sites from India were added to UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites, raising India’s tally from 62 to 69 places.

    About the 7 newly added UNESCO Tentative List Sites:

    Site

    Detailed Facts
    Deccan Traps (Panchgani & Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra) • One of the world’s largest volcanic provinces (~66 mya)
    • Basalt lava flows covering ~500,000 sq. km
    • Step-like “trap” topography, fossil beds, red bole layers
    • Linked to end-Cretaceous mass extinction
    • Part of Western Ghats; within Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary
    St. Mary’s Island Cluster (Udupi, Karnataka) • Four islands in Arabian Sea near Udupi
    • Famous for hexagonal/polygonal rhyolitic lava columns (~85–88 mya)
    • Formed during breakup of India–Madagascar
    • Declared National Geo-heritage Monument (2016)
    • Rare acidic lava formations, unique in India
    Meghalayan Age Caves (East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) • Mawmluh Cave is type locality for Meghalayan Age (~4,200 years ago)
    • Records global drought event in late Holocene
    • Meghalaya has longest sandstone cave (Krem Puri – 24.5 km)
    • Karst systems preserve stalagmites, paleoclimate archives
    • Culturally significant to Khasi tribes; threatened by mining
    Naga Hill Ophiolite (Nagaland) • 200 km belt of uplifted oceanic crust & mantle rocks
    • Composed of gabbro, peridotite, basalt
    • Formed at supra-subduction / mid-ocean ridge zones
    • Later thrust onto Indian continental plate
    • Only major ophiolite exposure in India; National Geological Monument
    Erra Matti Dibbalu (Red Sand Hills, Andhra Pradesh) • Quaternary-age coastal red sand mounds (~12,000–18,500 years old)
    • Spread over 5 km near Visakhapatnam
    • Derived from ancient Khondalite rocks
    • Record climate shifts, sea-level oscillations, monsoon history
    • Mesolithic–Neolithic artefacts found; National Geo-heritage Monument
    Tirumala Hills (Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh) • Famous for Eparchaean Unconformity (1.5 billion-year gap)
    • Boundary between Archaean gneiss & Proterozoic quartzites
    • Hosts Silathoranam natural arch, rare erosional landform
    • Hills rise to ~900 m; part of Cuddapah Basin
    • Combines geological, tectonic, and spiritual significance
    Varkala Cliff (Kerala) • Coastal cliff escarpment up to 80 m high
    • Exposes Mio-Pliocene Warkalli Formation (1.3–25 mya)
    • Fossiliferous sedimentary rocks beside sea (rare in India)
    • Natural springs and aquifers emerge from cliff face
    • Declared National Geological Monument; major tourism hub (Papanasam Beach)

    Back2Basics: UNESCO’s Tentative List

    • What is it: An inventory of cultural and natural sites that a member country plans to nominate for future World Heritage status.
    • Requirement: A site must stay on this list for at least one year before nomination.
    • Purpose: Allows UNESCO to assess Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) and plan conservation.
    • Note: Not all sites on the Tentative List become World Heritage Sites.
    • World Heritage Sites (WHS): Cultural, natural, or mixed sites recognised under the 1972 World Heritage Convention for their OUV.
    • Categories of WHS:
      • Cultural: Temples, monuments, forts, archaeological remains.
      • Natural: National parks, caves, biodiversity zones.
      • Mixed: Sacred landscapes with both cultural and natural value.
    • 10 Criteria for Selection: A site must satisfy at least one of these:
      • Cultural (i–vi): Masterpiece of human genius; interchange of values; unique cultural testimony; outstanding architecture/landscape; example of settlement/land use; linked to events, traditions, or ideas of universal significance.
      • Natural (vii–x): Exceptional natural beauty; example of Earth’s history; ecological or biological processes; key habitats for in-situ biodiversity conservation and threatened species.
    • India: It is currently a member of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee (2021–2025 term); Has 42 World Heritage Sites (34 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed).
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

    1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

    How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • In news: Cauvery River Dispute

    Why in the News?

    On the Cauvery dispute, Karnataka CM has said that water will be released to Tamil Nadu since the rainfall is adequate, while stressing the Mekedatu Dam’s role in water balance and clean energy.

     

    Back2Basics: Cauvery River

    • Origin & Course: Rises at Talakaveri, Brahmagiri range (Kodagu, Karnataka); flows ~800 km through Karnataka & Tamil Nadu into the Bay of Bengal.
    • Catchment: Spreads across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry.
    • Tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, Bhavani.
    • Nature: Perennial river, sustained by both advancing & retreating monsoons.
    • Protected Areas: Cauvery WLS, Biligirirangan Hills, Pushpagiri, Muthathi, Ranganathittu, Bhimeshwari, Nagarhole, Bandipur.

    About Cauvery Water Sharing Dispute:

    • Colonial Origins: Began in 1892 (Madras Presidency vs Mysore); 1924 Agreement (50 years, expired 1974).
    • Post-Independence: Disputes arose with dam projects by Karnataka (1960s–80s); Supreme Court referred to Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT).
    • Interim Phase: Cauvery River Authority (CRA, 1998) issued temporary orders.
    • CWDT Final Award (2013): Tamil Nadu 419 TMC, Karnataka 270, Kerala 30, Puducherry 7.
    • Karnataka’s Obligation: In normal years, release 177.25 TMC to TN, including 123.14 TMC in SW monsoon.
    • Challenges: Disputes sharpen in weak monsoons, triggering use of a “distress formula”.
    • Legal Basis: Governed by Article 262, Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956; Seventh Schedule entries 17 (State List) & 56 (Union List).

    cauvery

    About Mekedatu Dam Project:

    • Location: Deep gorge at Cauvery–Arkavathi confluence near Kanakapura, Karnataka.
    • Design: Balancing reservoir of ~66 TMC capacity.
    • Objectives: Provide Bengaluru drinking water, generate 400 MW hydropower, regulate flows to TN in drought years.
    • Importance: Karnataka argues it benefits both states by ensuring regulated water release.
    • Opposition: Tamil Nadu objects, fearing reduced downstream availability.
    • Current Status: Karnataka insists on moving ahead, requiring Centre & TN’s clearance.
    [UPSC 2022] Gandikota canyon of South India was created by which one of the following rivers?

    Options: (a) Cauvery (b) Manjira (c) Pennar* (d) Tungabhadra