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GS Paper: GS1-02.Modern Indian History- Mid-18th century – Present (significant events, personalities, issues);

  • The Contested Legacy of Tipu Sultan and the Politicization of Historical Scholarship

    Tipu Sultan

    Central Idea

    • Tipu Sultan, a historical figure who continues to fascinate people even today, had a powerful hold on the imaginations of the British during his reign. His afterlife in India has been more mixed, with conflicting views and interpretations from different communities and stakeholders. However, in the currently overheated State of Karnataka, the province of the historian has severely shrunk, yielding place to politicians and religious heads who now adjudicate historical truth.

    Who was Tipu Sultan?

    • Tipu was the son of Haider Ali, a professional soldier who climbed the ranks in the army of the Wodeyar king of Mysore, and ultimately took power in 1761.
    • Tipu was born in 1750 and, as a 17-year-old, fought in the first Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) and subsequently, against the Marathas and in the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84).
    • Haider died while this war was on, and Tipu succeeded him in 1782

    Tipu Sultan’s portrayal in England

    • During his reign, Tipu Sultan was feared and envied by the British, who portrayed him as a formidable foe and used him as a metaphor in multiple art objects, skits, and plays.
    • The pictorial versions of his defeat and death satisfied a very British need, asserting a badly dented British valour following decades of Mysore opposition to easy conquest.

    Tipu Sultan’s afterlife in India

    • Contested legacy: In 19th century Mysore, Tipu was admired for his firm stand against the British and for his efforts to prohibit the use of alcohol and drugs. However, in Karnataka today, the only story that can be told about Tipu is of his villainy and his opposition to Kannada and Hindus (and some Christians) alike.
    • Politicization and suppression of viewpoints: The politicization of historical scholarship has resulted in conflicting interpretations and the suppression of certain viewpoints.

    Admiration for Tipu Sultan

    • Resistance against British colonialism: Tipu Sultan was known for his resistance against British colonialism and fought against the British East India Company in four Anglo-Mysore wars. He refused to accept British supremacy and formed alliances with the French to fight against them. His bravery and military tactics are admired by many.
    • Agricultural and economic reforms: Tipu implemented several agricultural and economic reforms in his kingdom, including the introduction of new crops, irrigation systems, and the construction of roads and canals. These reforms helped to improve the agricultural productivity and the overall economic condition of his kingdom.
    • Support for the arts and culture: He was a patron of the arts and culture and supported the development of literature, music, and architecture. He was known for his love for poetry and encouraged the development of the Urdu language.
    • Use of new military tactics: Tipu Sultan is credited with pioneering new military tactics, including the use of rockets and iron-cased warships. His use of rockets in particular gave him an advantage over the British, who were initially unprepared for his tactics.
    • Promotion of religious tolerance: Tipu Sultan abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and promoted interfaith dialogue and understanding. He had a diverse court that included Hindus, Muslims, and Christians, and he was known for his tolerance towards other religions.

    Criticism of Tipu Sultan

    • Religious policies: Tipu Sultan’s religious policies have been a subject of criticism, with some accusing him of being intolerant towards non-Muslims. He was known for his forced conversions of Hindus and Christians to Islam and the destruction of temples and churches. The destruction of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangapatna, which is said to be carried out on Tipu Sultan’s orders.
    • Treatment of prisoners of war: Tipu Sultan has been criticized for his treatment of prisoners of war, especially during the Third Anglo-Mysore war when he ordered the execution of several British prisoners.
    • Oppression of certain communities: Tipu Sultan’s oppression of certain communities, including the Kodava people of Coorg and the Nairs of Kerala, has been a subject of criticism. He imposed heavy taxes on these communities and forced them to convert to Islam.
    • Suppression of dissent: Tipu Sultan is known to have punished those who spoke out against his rule, including writers and poets. One example of this is the punishment of the poet Diwan Kurnool Srinivas, who was imprisoned and tortured for writing a satirical poem about Tipu Sultan’s rule.

    Facts for Prelims

    • Tipu Sultan had alliances with the French and Ottoman empires, and he had diplomatic relations with the United States.
    • He was also a supporter of the French Revolution and sent a delegation to Paris to learn about the principles of the revolution.
    • Tipu Sultan’s kingdom of Mysore was one of the few Indian states to have a coinage system independent of the Mughal Empire.
    • He was interested in science and technology, and he established a library and a centre for scientific research in his palace.
    • He is credited with introducing new crops and plants to his kingdom, such as the silk worm and the sandalwood tree.
    • Tipu Sultan was a polyglot and could speak Kannada, Persian, Arabic, and Urdu fluently.
    • Tipu Sultan was known for his innovative military tactics, such as the use of rockets and iron-cased warships.

    Conclusion

    • The contested legacy of Tipu Sultan highlights the importance of protecting historical scholarship from politicization and using it to promote understanding and dialogue instead of being weaponized for narrow political gains. The conflicting views and interpretations of Tipu Sultan’s legacy demonstrate the need for a nuanced and multi-perspective approach to history.

     

     

  • The Decolonization Drive: Monuments of National Importance Reflects Bharat’s history

    Central Idea

    • The decolonization drive started by the present government in India to change the British mindset of those responsible for writing history books, which led to the neglect of important monuments and archaeological sites. The Economic Advisory Council’s report on Monuments of National Importance, which he sees as a significant step in the right direction for the preservation and designation of monuments that reflect Bharat’s history. There are some anomalies in the list of monuments of national importance and suggests changes in the way India looks at the preservation of monuments.

    What are the recommendations given by the report?

    • Rationalise and evolve criteria for India’s list of monuments: The report underlined the urgent need to rationalise India’s list of monuments of national importance and recommended that the ASI should evolve substantive criteria and a detailed procedure for declaring monuments to be of national importance.
    • Book of detailed information: ASI should publish a book of notifications with detailed information about each MNI’s provenance, hand over protection and upkeep of monuments of local importance to respective states and denotify to the extent possible, all standalone antiquities like cannons and statues.
    • Funds: Allocation of funds for the preservation of MNI should be increased and ASI should retain the proceeds generated from revenue streams like tickets, events, fees and other sources.

    Neglect of Monuments and Archaeological Sites in Post-Independence India

    • Inadequate efforts: After India’s independence, little effort was made to correct the British mindset of those responsible for writing history books, which resulted in the neglect of monuments and archaeological sites.
    • British view of India: History books continued to teach the history of India’s defeats and its enemies’ victories, which perpetuated the British view of India.

    The Decolonization Drive under the present Government

    • National Heroes: The present government led by PM Modi started the decolonisation drive to bring out the sagas of King Suheldev, Rani Durgavati, and Lachit Barphukan, among others.
    • For example: The government highlighted the story of the founder-king of Delhi, Anangpal Tomar, and declared the neglected Anang Tal as a monument of national importance.
    • Names, sites, insignia of national importance: The government also held national and international events at the Sindhu-Saraswati site of Dholavira and unveiled a new Shivaji-era inspired naval insignia.

    Significance of this Report

    • The Economic Advisory Council’s report on Monuments of National Importance is a significant step in the right direction.
    • The report will bring a whiff of fresh thinking in the direction of preserving and designating monuments that reflect Bharat’s history.
    • All the recommendations made by the report can be implemented without amending the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act and need only executive orders.

    Anomalies in the List of Monuments of National Importance

    • There are some anomalies in the list of monuments of national importance.
    • There is not a single monument connected with the struggles of Dalits and B R Ambedkar’s life that has been declared a national monument.
    • Some monuments, like Tota-Maina ki Qabar and Dadi Poti ka Gumbad, have no history, and nobody knows whether they should be declared as Monuments of National Importance.
    • Therefore, all agencies working on monuments be unshackled from the British slave mindset and given into the hands of those who know their subject.

    Conclusion

    • There is hope that the Bibek Debroy-Sanjeev Sanyal report will bring a whiff of fresh thinking in the direction of preserving and designating monuments that reflect Bharat’s history. There is the need for an Archaeological Foundation to preserve the civilizational and revolutionary monuments of India.

    Mains Question

    Q. Discuss the recommendations given by the Economic Advisory Council’s report on Monuments of National Importance and its significance in preserving and designating monuments that reflect Bharat’s history.

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  • Antiquities abroad: What Indian, international laws say

    antiq

    Central idea: Indian authorities are pushing for restitution of stolen antiquities and ancient religious artefacts.

    What is an antiquity?

    • An antiquity is defined by the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 as-
    1. Any coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph or other work of art or craftsmanship;
    2. Any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave;
    3. Any article, object or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals or politics in bygone ages;
    4. Any article, object or thing of historical interest that has been in existence for not less than one hundred years.
    • For manuscripts, records or other documents of scientific, historical, literary or aesthetic value, this duration is not less than seventy-five years.

    What do international conventions say?

    • The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property defined “cultural property” as the property designated by countries having “importance for archaeology, prehistory, history, literature, art or science.”
    • The Convention further stated that “the illicit import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property is one of the main causes of the impoverishment of the cultural heritage of the countries of origin of such property and that international co-operation constitutes one of the most efficient means of protecting each country’s cultural property.”
    • The General Assembly of the UN and the UN Security Council in 2015 and 2016 also raised concerns about the illicit international traffic of cultural items and related offenses.
    • An INTERPOL report in 2019 indicated that almost 50 years after the UNESCO convention, the illicit international traffic of cultural items and related offenses is increasingly prolific.

    What do Indian laws say?

    • In India, Item-67 of the Union List, Item-12 of the State List, and Item-40 of the Concurrent List of the Constitution deal with the country’s heritage.
    • The Antiquities (Export Control) Act was passed in April 1947 to ensure that no antiquity could be exported without a license.
    • The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was enacted in 1958.
    • The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 (AATA) was implemented on April 1, 1976, after an uproar in Parliament over the theft of a bronze idol from Chamba and some important sandstone idols from other places.
    • Under the AATA, it is not lawful for any person other than the Central Government or any authorized agency to export any antiquity or art treasure, and no person shall carry on the business of selling or offering to sell any antiquity except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a license granted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

    What is the provenance of an antiquity?

    • Provenance includes the list of all owners from the time the object left its maker’s possession to the time it was acquired by the current owner.

    How is ownership proved?

    • The requesting party needs to furnish, at its expense, the documentation and other evidence necessary to establish its claim for recovery and return, according to the UNESCO 1970 declaration.
    • In India, the first thing in order to prove ownership is the complaint (FIR) filed with the police. In many cases, there is no FIR for missing antiquities.
    • However, other proof such as details mentioned by reputed scholars in research papers can also be helpful.

    How to check for fake antiquities?

    • Every person who owns, controls or is in possession of any antiquity shall register such antiquity before the registering officer and obtain a certificate in token of such registration under section 14(3) of the AATA.
    • The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities, launched in March 2007, has registered
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  • Who were Alluri Sitharama Raju and Komaram Bheem?

    raju

    A Telugu movie with its story and characters rooted in the lives of Indian freedom fighters Alluri Sitharama Raju and Komaram Bheem is garnering attention on the global stage.

    Who was Alluri Sitharama Raju?

    • Raju is believed to have been born in Andhra Pradesh in 1897 or 1898.
    • He is said to have become a sanyasi at the age of 18 and gained a mystical aura among the hill and tribal peoples with his austerity, knowledge of astrology and medicine, and his ability to tame wild animals.
    • At a very young age, Raju channelled the discontent of the hill people in Ganjam, Visakhapatnam, and Godavari into an effective guerrilla resistance against the British.

    Advent into revolutionary activities

    • Colonial rule threatened the tribals’ traditional podu (shifting) cultivation, as the government sought to secure forest lands.
    • The Forest Act of 1882 banned the collection of minor forest produce such as roots and leaves, and tribal people were forced into labour by the colonial government.
    • While the tribals were subjected to exploitation by muttadars, village headmen commissioned by the colonial government to extract rent, the new laws and systems threatened their way of life itself.
    • Strong anti-government sentiment, shared by the muttadars who were aggrieved by the curtailment of their powers by the British, exploded into armed resistance in August 1922.

    Contribution to freedom struggle

    • The Rampa or Manyam Rebellion continued in the form of a guerrilla war until May 1924, when Raju, the charismatic ‘Manyam Veerudu’ or Hero of Jungle, was finally captured and executed.
    • The Rampa Rebellion coincided with Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement.
    • Raju often talked of the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi, said he was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
    • But at the same time, he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.

    Who was Alluri Sitharama Raju?

    • Raju is believed to have been born in Andhra Pradesh in 1897 or 1898.
    • He is said to have become a sanyasi at the age of 18 and gained a mystical aura among the hill and tribal peoples with his austerity, knowledge of astrology and medicine, and his ability to tame wild animals.
    • At a very young age, Raju channelled the discontent of the hill people in Ganjam, Visakhapatnam, and Godavari into an effective guerrilla resistance against the British.

    Advent into revolutionary activities

    • Colonial rule threatened the tribals’ traditional podu (shifting) cultivation, as the government sought to secure forest lands.
    • The Forest Act of 1882 banned the collection of minor forest produce such as roots and leaves, and tribal people were forced into labour by the colonial government.
    • While the tribals were subjected to exploitation by muttadars, village headmen commissioned by the colonial government to extract rent, the new laws and systems threatened their way of life itself.
    • Strong anti-government sentiment, shared by the muttadars who were aggrieved by the curtailment of their powers by the British, exploded into armed resistance in August 1922.

    Contribution to freedom struggle

    • The Rampa or Manyam Rebellion continued in the form of a guerrilla war until May 1924, when Raju, the charismatic ‘Manyam Veerudu’ or Hero of Jungle, was finally captured and executed.
    • The Rampa Rebellion coincided with Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement.
    • Raju often talked of the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi, said he was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
    • But at the same time, he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.

    And who was Komaram Bheem?

    • Komram Bheem was born in the Gond tribal community at Sankepally village in Komarambheem District, which was renamed after him in 2016.
    • Bheem’s family’s land was occupied by a jagirdar who was an informer of the Nizam, which led to him killing the jagirdar in a fit of rage.
    • To avoid authorities, he went to Assam and worked as a labourer in coffee and tea plantations for five years.
    • Despite being illiterate, Bheem learned to read and write and became aware of movements like Birsa Munda’s.

    Resistance against the Nizam government

    • The Nizam government collected taxes in the name of “Bambram” and “Dupapetti” from people grazing cattle and collecting firewood for cooking.
    • Bheem spread the message of “Jal, Jangal, Zameen” among tribal people in opposition to this tax collection.
    • He trained tribal people to fight with weapons, and villages in Adilabad were ready with the help of a guerrilla army composed of Gond and Koya communities’ men.

    Death and legacy

    • Despite their efforts, Nizam’s army overwhelmed the tribal resistance.
    • Bheem died at their hands in the Jodeghat forest.
    • Bheem’s message of “Jal, Jangal, Zameen” has become a clarion call for indigenous people’s rights to natural resources, used in many parts of India to date.
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  • Women’s Role In Constitution Building

    Women

    Central idea

    • The process of drafting our Constitution during Partition and after a long period of colonization was a magnificent and dynamic process. Despite being part of the Assembly, voices and contributions of women have been neglected and overshadowed. The riveting work by Achyut Chetan,” The Founding Mothers of the Republic” published by Cambridge University Press in 2022 serves as a means of rectifying this historical omission and giving due credit to the women who played a crucial role in shaping India’s democracy.

    Women

    Women In constitutional Assembly

    • When the Constitution was completed, there were 11 women members of the Constituent Assembly who signed onto it.
    • These drafters were G Durgabai, Ammu Swaminathan, Amrit Kaur, Dakshayani Velayudhan, Hansa Mehta, Renuka Ray, Sucheta Kripalani, Purnima Banerjee, Begum Qudsiya Aizaz Rasul, Kamala Chaudhri and Annie Mascarene.
    • The Constituent Assembly first met on December 11, 1946 and had 169 sessions before all its members signed the document on January 24, 1950

    How do we know what happened in the Constituent Assembly?

    • Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD) is the only source: A rich but by no means the only source is the 12 volumes of the Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD), consisting of speeches made by members and the amendments to the draft articles.
    • CAD misses no. of reports and notes pf various committes: However, what the CAD does not have are the reports and notes of the various committees of the CA.
    • For instance: Much groundbreaking work was done in the Advisory Committee (chaired by Vallabhbhai Patel), which in turn had two sub-committees the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and the Minorities Sub-Committee.

    Women

    Role of Women in the constituent assembly

    • Hansa Mehta and Amrit kaur: Hansa Mehta and Amrit Kaur were on the Advisory Committee, with both being members of the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and Kaur serving also on the Minorities Sub-Committee.
    • G Durgabai: G Durgabai occupied effective positions on two important committees on procedural affairs The Steering Committee and the Rules Committee.
    • Women were highly active: Women members were present and highly active on almost all significant committees and subcommittees.
    • Women members often faced disrespect and discrimination: For instance, Renuka Ray opposed the clause on the Right to Property which put the compensation given within the purview of courts. During the debates on the floor of the Assembly too she was constantly interrupted and heckled even by the men of the eminence and tried to deride their amendments
    • Women members made their opinions known and stood firm: In the settings of the committees they wrote notes of dissent, Amrit Kaur and Hansa Mehta wrote notes of dissent against decisions that relegated the uniform civil code to the non-justiciable rights, allowed the state to impose conscription for compulsory military service, at each stage when the committees made their official recommendations to the higher bodies of the Assembly

    Women

    For Instance: Views of Dakshayani Velayudhan on reservation

    • Dakshayani Velayudhan, the only woman member from the Scheduled Castes communities, argued against reservations.
    • She refused by saying “to believe that 70 million Harijans are to be considered as a minority and argued that reservations would not be in the best interests of them.
    • She also argued that “the working of the Constitution will depend upon how the people will conduct themselves in the future, not on the actual execution of the law. When this Constitution is put into practice, what we want is not to punish the people for acting against the law, but for the state to take on the task of educating citizens for a transformation.”

    The present status of Women representation in politics worldwide

    • Representative governments increased but women count remains low: According to UN Women, as of September 2022, there were 30 women serving as elected heads of state and/or of government in 28 countries (out of a total of 193 UN member states).
    • Dichotomy in active participation: There is the dichotomy between the rapid increase of women’s participation as voters in elections and other political activities, and the slow rise of female representation in Parliament.
    • Global average women representation: As of May 2022, the global average of female representation in national parliaments was 26.2 percent.
    • Above average representation: The Americas, Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa have women’s representation above the global average;
    • Below average representation: Asia, the Pacific region, and the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region, are below average.
    • Varied representation within Asian countries:
    • The South Asian countries faring worse than the others.
    • IPU data of May 2022 showed that women’s representation in Nepal, for example, was 34 percent, in Bangladesh 21 percent, in Pakistan 20 percent, in Bhutan 17 percent and in Sri Lanka 5 percent.
    • For India, women’s representation in the Lok Sabha (the Lower House) has remained slightly below 15 percent.
    • The study does not include Afghanistan, but World Bank data of 2021 stated that female representation in the country’s last parliament was 27 percent.

    Women

    Conclusion

    • As we approach 75 years of our Constitution, it’s time for scholars, teachers, students, lawyers, judges and all others who engage with our constitution-making efforts to look to sources that tell a more complete story of our drafters. The quiet women and the more visible men should both be recalled, for their roles and their contributions. That would be an accurate telling of how our founding document came to be.

    Mains Question

    Q. The role of women in constitution making has often been neglected. In light of this illustrate the participation of women during India’s constitution making process.

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  • Tipu Sultan’s Contested Legacy

    tipu

    Central idea: The article examines the controversial nature of Tipu Sultan’s legacy and the differing opinions about his reign and his place in Indian history. It discusses the contrasting views of Tipu Sultan as a hero and patriot who fought against British colonialism, or as a tyrant who persecuted Hindus and Christians.

    Rise of Tipu Sultan

    • Tipu Sultan was born on November 10, 1750, in Devanahalli, present-day Bangalore.
    • His father was Hyder Ali, who rose through the ranks of the army of the Wodeyars, the Hindu rulers of Mysore.

    Rise to power

    • Hyder Ali seized power from the Wodeyars in 1761 and ruled for 20 years, a period in which the kingdom of Mysore had slowly expanded by capturing disputed areas at its borders.
    • During this time, Tipu was educated in both matters of statecraft and warcraft, participating in his first battle at the age of only 15.
    • When Hyder Ali died in 1782, Tipu’s primary motivation was to consolidate the territory he had inherited from his father.
    • Specifically, the rebellious provinces of Malabar, Kodagu, and Bednur, were crucial to Mysore’s strategic and economic interests.
    • His rule in these areas is what is often cited as proof of his bigotry and authoritarianism.

    Contribution to freedom struggle

    • In the course of India’s freedom struggle, Tipu Sultan became a symbol of resistance against British rule.
    • His death while defending his fortress of Srirangaptna against British armies in 1799 was valorised as the ultimate sacrifice for the motherland.

    Reforms carried out by Tipu

    Administrative reforms

    • Tipu Sultan also pioneered administrative and economic reforms.
    • He introduced new coins, started a new land revenue system in Mysore, as well as introduced sericulture or silkworm cultivation, which continues to employ many Kannadigas to date.
    • Furthermore, some claim that upon hearing of the plight of lower caste women who were not allowed to wear blouses, Tipu personally supplied them with cloth.

    Modernization of weaponry: Advent of Rockets

    tipu

    • Tipu is credited for the introduction of iron-cased rockets in warfare.
    • While rocket-like weapons had previously been used in War, Tipu’s army used what can be termed as the first modern war rockets in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
    • These rockets were used to devastating effects against much larger British armies, driving them to panic and disarray.
    • The British used Tipu’s models for their own rockets, which would go on to play an important role in the Napoleonic Wars.

    Scientific temper

    tipu

    • Tipu’s fascination with European culture was a result of what he saw while fighting Europeans.
    • Tipu wanted Mysore to be a modern rival of the European powers and made investments in technology accordingly.

    Why is Tipu branded as a tyrant?

    • Warfare in Tipu’s time was brutal and those who rebelled were dealt with an iron fist. It was common practice to set strong examples to forestall future opposition.
    • The punishments Tipu applied to rebels or conspirators included forced conversion and the transfer of people from their home territories to Mysore.
    • The forced removals occurred from both Kodagu and Malabar, the former as a response to continued resistance against Mysore rule– as a result of their resistance and perceived treachery in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
    • The right’s narrative of Tipu’s bigotry emphasizes Tipu’s militarism as well as his perceived attacks on “Hindu” rulers and subjects.

    Historian’s justification of Tipu’s actions

    • Tipu’s actions are questionable by today’s standards, they were commonplace in the 18th century among rulers of all faiths.
    • He was a tyrant, but his motivations were not necessarily religious zealotry.
    • Rather, he was a pragmatist who ruled within the accepted conventions of kingship and warfare at the time.
    • He undoubtedly ordered forced conversions in areas he annexed, Tipu also patronized various temples and Hindu shrines, including the Sri Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatna and the Math in Sringeri.
    • Both these actions were to solidify his position as a ruler — the former to crush dissidents and the latter to gain legitimacy among his largely Hindu subjects.

    Tipu’s legacy: looking at the past from the prism of the present

    • Today, there has been an increased spotlight on his autocratic tendencies and brutal repression in annexed territories, with an increased emphasis on his religion.
    • Both portrayals fall short, missing the complexity of Tipu’s character and material circumstances.

     

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  • Anti-encroachment drive in historic city of Mehrauli

    mehrauli

    The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) carried out an anti-encroachment drive in the nearby villages of Mehrauli and Ladha Sarai leaving hundreds of families in uncertainty about their future.

    History of Delhi

    • Purani Dilli, commonly referred to as Old Delhi, is a misnomer as the city’s history dates back to before the establishment of Shahjahanabad.
    • The oldest evidence of habitation in Delhi, dating back to the Iron Age (around 1100-800 BC), is the painted grey ware fragments found in Purana Quila.
    • Historians recognize seven cities of Delhi, from the 11th century onwards, namely Lalkot/Quila Rai Pithora/Mehrauli, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Firozabad, Shergarh (Old Fort), Shahjahanabad, and New Delhi.
    • However, depending on what is considered a city, this number can be as high as 11.

    In focus: City of Mehrauli

    • Mehrauli is widely considered to be the oldest ‘city’ of Delhi and is the oldest area of the metropolis to be continuously inhabited.
    • It was first built by a ruler called Anangpal II in the 11th century, and it was called Lalkot.
    • Later, it was known as ‘Quila Rai Pithora’ and was fortified by the Chauhans.
    • The Mamluk dynasty took control of the city in 1192, and Qutubudin Aibak, the first ruler of the dynasty, built the Qutub Minar and the Quwwat-al-Islam mosque (oldest mosque in North India).
    • In the following century, more buildings like tombs, step wells, palaces, and fortifications were constructed during the reigns of Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, and Alauddin Khilji.

    Continued relevance and inhabitation

    • Even as the newer cities came up and the seat of power shifted northwards, Mehrauli witnessed building activity as late as the Mughal and British periods.
    • Due to its location on the lap of the Aravallis hills, the area was preferred as a summer retreat.
    • Two Mughal summer palaces (Zafar Mahal and Jahaz Mahal) and a summer abode of Sir Thomas Metcalfe (Dilkhusha) are situated here.
    • Mehrauli lay on a historic trade route, as the number of sarais (Ladho Sarai, Ber Sarai, Neb Sarai) around the area would suggest. A sarai was a resthouse for weary travellers.

    Cultural significance of Mehrauli

    • Mehrauli is also a spiritual centre. Sufi saint Hazrat Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (1173 -1235 AD) was buried in the city and his dargah remains popular till date, across religious lines.
    • Some historians cite the dargah as a reason for the city surviving the test of time – despite power shifting elsewhere, the dargah remained a revered destination for pilgrims far and wide.
    • Another spiritual centre for the community is the Yogmaya mandir, believed to be one of the oldest in the city.
    • Yoginis (semi-divine deities) have been an integral part of Indian folklore and this temple dedicated to them is believed to have been constructed by the Pandavas.

    How it ended up in encroachments?

    • Like much of the rest of Delhi, the Partition brought many changes to Mehrauli too.
    • Many refugees from the West found sanctuary here. The city has also seen sectarian tensions.

     

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  • India’s first Law Minister Dr. Ambedkar’s resignation letter missing from records

    ambedkar

    Dr. BR Ambedkar was India’s first Law Minister after independence. The letter of his resignation is now missing from official records.

    Dr Ambedkar as Law Minister

    • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar served as Independent India’s first law minister.
    • He was an Indian jurist, economist, politician, and social reforme, who was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1990.
    • It is believed that Sardar Patel and Mahatma Gandhi proposed Dr. Ambedkar’s name for the post of Law Minister in the Nehru Cabinet.

    Why was he selected for the post?

    • Being father of our Constitution: Sardar Patel, then deputy PM, had a high regard for Dr. Ambedkar’s intellectual abilities and his contributions to the drafting of India’s Constitution.
    • Political urge for inclusivity: Additionally, Dr. Ambedkar’s role in the Dalit movement and his fight against caste discrimination also made him a significant political figure.
    • Representation of the marginalized: His appointment as the Law Minister was seen as a symbol of inclusivity and representation of marginalized communities in the government.

    Why did Dr. Ambedkar resign?

    • Political differences with Nehru: He resigned as Law Minister, due to differences with the then PM, Jawaharlal Nehru, over the Hindu Code Bill. He specifically wanted to reform Hindu Personal Laws and not every personal laws in India.
    • Row over reforming Personal Laws: The bill aimed to reform Hindu personal laws related to marriage, divorce, and inheritance, but Dr. Ambedkar believed that it did not go far enough in granting women’s rights and wanted more radical changes.
    • Injustice to women: Ambedkar had proposed a more comprehensive set of reforms that would have given women greater rights in matters such as property ownership and inheritance, but his proposals were met with resistance from Nehru and other members of the government.

    Efforts to locate his resignation letter

    • The letter was not found in the National Archives of India and the Ministry of Home Affairs.
    • The Maharashtra government has also been unable to locate the letter in its archives.
    • RTI (Right to Information) requests were also unsuccessful.

    Significance of his letter

    • The missing letter is a matter of concern as it is an important historical document.
    • Ambedkar’s resignation was a significant event in India’s political history and the reasons behind it are still relevant today.
    • The letter could shed light on the differences between the visionary Dr. Ambedkar and then mainstream politicians.

     

     

    India’s first Provisional Government (Constitutionally)

     

    • Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India after the country gained independence in 1947.
    • The members of his first cabinet, which was sworn in on August 15, 1947, were as follows:
    1. Jawaharlal Nehru – Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs
    2. Vallabhbhai Patel – Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Home Affairs
    3. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar – Minister of Law and Member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council
    4. C. Rajagopalachari – Minister of Industry and Supply
    5. John Mathai – Minister of Railways
    6. Liaquat Ali Khan – Minister of Finance
    7. Baldev Singh – Minister of Defence
    8. Sardar Baldev Singh – Minister of Communications
    9. Sardar Swaran Singh – Minister of Works, Mines and Power
    10. Jagjivan Ram – Minister of Labour and Rehabilitation
    11. Dr. Rajendra Prasad – Minister of Food and Agriculture
    12. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad – Minister of Education
    13. Sardar K.M. Panikkar – Minister of States
    14. Rafi Ahmed Kidwai – Minister of Communications (Independent Charge)
    15. Asaf Ali – Minister of Railways (Independent Charge)
    • It is worth noting that this was a provisional government, and the first general election to form a permanent government was held in 1952.

     

    Note: Azad Hind was not India’s first provisional government. The credit for establishing that – formally known as the ”Hukumat-i-Moktar-i-Hind” – in Kabul on 1st Dec, 1915, goes to Raja Mahendra Pratap and Maulana Barkatullah.

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  • Who was Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati?

    dayanand

    PM inaugurated celebrations commemorating Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati’s 200th birth anniversary.

    Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883)

    • Dayanand Saraswati (born Mool Shankar Tiwari) was a religious leader and founder of the Arya Samaj, a reform movement in the nineteenth century.
    • He was a profound scholar of the Vedic lore and Sanskrit language.
    • Dayanand was a great scholar, and was well-versed in the Vedas and the Upanishads.
    • He was also proficient in Sanskrit grammar, philosophy, religion, politics and other sciences.

    Notable works

    (1) Literary works

    • He wrote several books, including the Satyarth Prakash, which became the moral and spiritual foundation of the Arya Samaj.
    • This book was translated into many languages, including Hindi, English and Urdu.

    (2) Freedom movement

    • He was the first to give the call for Swaraj as “Indian for India” – in 1876, a call later taken up by Lokmanya Tilak.
    • Subsequently, the philosopher and President of India, S. Radhakrishnan, called him one of the “makers of Modern India”, as did Sri Aurobindo.

    (3) Religious reform

    • Denouncing the idolatry and ritualistic worship prevalent in Hinduism at the time, he worked towards reviving Vedic ideologies.
    • He believed that the Vedas should be interpreted in the light of reason and not of blind faith.
    • He also campaigned against animal sacrifice and the worship of idols.

    (4) Social reform

    • Dayanand was a staunch advocate of women’s rights.
    • He believed in the equality of all human beings and advocated the abolition of the caste system.

    (5) Education

    • Dayanand was an ardent believer in the power of knowledge and education.
    • He established the Gurukul system of education, which provided free education to all, irrespective of caste or gender.
    • Based on his teachings, in 1885 the first DAV School was established at Lahore which was subsequently upgraded to become the first DAV College.
    • In 1886 the DAV College Trust and Management Society was established and registered.

     

    Try this PYQ:

    Which among the following event happened earliest?

    (a) Swami Dayanand established Arya Samaj

    (b) Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neeldarpan

    (c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote Anandmath

    (d) Satyendranath Tagore became the first India to succeed in the Indian Civil Services Examination.

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”m4telm58he” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

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  • Today in History: Treaty of Alinagar

    alinagar

    Signed on February 9, 1757, the Treaty of Alinagar between the Nawab of Bengal and the East India Company raised the curtains for British colonial expansion in India.

    Treaty of Alinagar, 1757

    • Signed on February 9, 1757, the Treaty of Alinagar was signed between Robert Clive of the East India Company and Mirza Muhammad Siraj Ud Daula, then Nawab of Bengal.
    • It is said to be one of the key events leading up to the Battle of Plassey later that year.
    • Plassey was where the English laid a significant blow, defeating the nawab. It paved the way for the East India Company’s takeover of Bengal.
    • The name Alinagar was a short-lived reference to modern-day Kolkata, and the treaty came about after the nawab was faced with both the British and Afghan forces.
    • He compromised with the former; however, the peace was short-lived.

    British advent in India: A quick backgrounder

    • After the Anglo-Mughal War which took place between 1686 and 1690, the British began consolidating their presence in the subcontinent.
    • It had established the Fort St. George in what was Madras, Fort William in then Calcutta and Bombay Castle by the beginning of the 18th century.
    • The British initially helped local princes and nawabs quell uprisings or revolts and they, in turn, gave them concessions.

    Course of the treaty

    • In January 1757, the British attacked the town of Hooghly, close to then Calcutta, with over 700 men.
    • The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah, who had just come to power a year earlier in his early 20s, mobilised forces.
    • His troops would overpower the British and reach Calcutta on January 10, 1757, having lost over 600 men.
    • However, the losses sustained in the war had resulted in the nawab losing confidence.
    • He signed what came to be known as the Treaty of Alinagar with Robert Clive – who became the first British Governor of the Bengal Presidency – on February 9, 1757.
    • Siraj-ud-daulah agreed to the restoration of the company’s factories and allowed for the fortification of Calcutta.

    Aftermath of the battle

    • The British then moved on to wrest the remaining territories in Bengal from the French, laying siege to Chandannagar.
    • However, the move did not go down well with the nawab.
    • But, Daulah was also wary of Afghan forces under Ahmad Shah Durrani and the Marathas.
    • Traders in his kingdom were already wary of him and there was a conspiracy led by the likes of his military general, Mir Jafar.
    • Events would later culminate in the Battle of Plassey on June 23, 1757.
    • It resulted in the East India Company gaining hold of Bengal and was a significant event in its rise to power in the subcontinent.

    Try this question.

    Q.For most Indians, the history of British colonial rule in India begins in Plassey. However, the roots of it were sown long back. Discuss. (250W)

     

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