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  • A story of displacement to one of empowerment

    Why in the news?

    Over 45% of Sri Lankan Tamils in Tamil Nadu’s rehabilitation camps were born in India, per a recent interim report by a State government panel.

    Causes of Tamilian Displacement

    • Ethnocentric Violence: The primary cause of displacement was the ethnocentric violence in Sri Lanka, particularly against the Tamil population. The violence led to significant loss of life and property, forcing Tamils to flee for their safety.
    • Proximity and Linguistic Commonality: Many Tamils chose India, particularly Tamil Nadu, due to its geographical proximity and the shared Tamil language, making it a more accessible and familiar refuge.

    Government Initiatives

    • Provision of Basic Amenities: Refugees receive free housing, electricity, water, and monthly food rations. Additionally, they get a monthly cash dole.
    • Educational Support: Access to government schools is provided, along with a monthly stipend of ₹1,000 for those pursuing higher education. One-time educational support includes ₹12,000 for arts and science students and ₹50,000 for engineering students.
    • Welfare Schemes: Refugees are eligible for various welfare schemes available to the people of Tamil Nadu, including the women’s rights scheme providing ₹1,000 per month.
    • New Housing: Recently, the Government of Tamil Nadu has constructed new homes for about 5,000 Sri Lankan Tamils.
    • Renaming Camps: In an effort to destigmatise, the refugee camps were renamed as Sri Lankan Tamil Rehabilitation Camps in a government order dated October 28, 2021.

    Bringing Back Dignity

    • Educational Achievements: The welfare schemes have led to 100% school enrollment and over 4,500 graduates from the camps.
    • Breaking Caste Barriers: As refugees, Sri Lankan Tamils are categorized under the Refugee category, which has helped in break free from caste barriers.
    • Government Recognition: The renaming of refugee camps to Sri Lankan Tamil Rehabilitation Camps is a step towards restoring the dignity of the displaced population.
    • Advocacy and Support: Continuous advocacy by organizations like OfERR, support from donors, and political parties have facilitated the patronage extended by the Government of Tamil Nadu and the Government of India.
    • Potential for Future Contribution: The transformation of refugees into resource persons capable of contributing to nation-building when they return to Sri Lanka.

    Current Challenges

    • Legal Limitations: Indian laws currently do not permit local integration by granting citizenship to Sri Lankan refugees.
    • Economic and Health Crises: The COVID-19 pandemic and the economic crisis in Sri Lanka have slowed down the process of refugees returning to their homeland.
    • Uncertain Future: Despite the improvements in their living conditions and dignity, Sri Lankan Tamils in India continue to live with uncertainty about their long-term future.

    Way forward:

    • Amend Legal Frameworks: Advocate for amendments in Indian laws to allow for local integration and citizenship for long-term refugees, providing them with a secure legal status and equal rights.
    • Strengthen Economic Opportunities: Develop targeted economic empowerment programs, including vocational training and employment initiatives, to enhance self-sufficiency and reduce dependency on state support, ensuring a sustainable livelihood for the refugees.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q ‘India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka.’ Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in the light of the preceding statement. (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • Thailand to become third Asian country to legalize Same-sex Marriage  

    Why in the News?

    On Tuesday, June 18, the Marriage Equality Bill was approved by the Thai Senate, the upper house of Thailand’s National Assembly, with overwhelming support.

    What does the Bill entail? 

    • Gender-Neutral Language: The bill replaces gender-specific terms such as “husbands” and “wives” in Thai marriage laws with gender-neutral terms like “spouse” and “person”. This change allows any two individuals, regardless of their gender, to marry each other.
    • Equal Rights: Same-sex couples will have the same rights as heterosexual couples in various legal and practical aspects, including:
      • Adoption rights: Same-sex couples can adopt children.
      • Inheritance rights: They are entitled to inherit property from their spouses.
      • Tax benefits: They will receive similar tax benefits as heterosexual married couples.
      • Legal decision-making: They can make legal decisions on behalf of their spouses, such as consenting to medical treatment.
    • Recognition and Protection: The bill ensures that same-sex marriages are legally recognised and protected, providing stability and legal security to LGBTQ+ couples in Thailand.
    • Public Support: The bill’s passage reflects growing societal acceptance and support for LGBTQ+ rights in Thailand. Public opinion has been largely positive, with significant cross-party support in the Thai Senate and lower house of the National Assembly.

    What about other Asian countries?

    • Criminalization: Many Asian countries, beyond those mentioned (Thailand, Taiwan, Nepal), still criminalize same-sex sexual activity. This includes countries like Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, where laws derived from colonial-era penal codes often penalize homosexuality with imprisonment or fines.
    • Lack of Legal Recognition: Most Asian nations do not legally recognize same-sex marriages or partnerships.
      • Even in countries where same-sex relations are not explicitly criminalized, there is often no legal framework for marriage or civil unions for LGBTQ+ individuals.
    • Legal Battles: In countries like India, legal battles continue as activists seek to overturn discriminatory laws and secure legal recognition for same-sex relationships, including marriage.
    • International Pressure: International human rights organizations and diplomatic efforts sometimes exert pressure on Asian governments to improve LGBTQ+ rights. However, progress is often slow and faces strong domestic resistance.

    Note: Currently, same-sex marriage is legal in 36 countries (not including Thailand) globally, according to LGBTQ+ rights advocacy Human Rights Campaign.

    Way forward: 

    • Legal Challenges and Reform: Support ongoing legal challenges in courts across Asia to overturn discriminatory laws and promote legal recognition of same-sex relationships. This includes advocating for legislative reforms that protect LGBTQ+ rights, including the recognition of same-sex marriages or civil unions.
    • International Pressure and Diplomacy: Encourage international human rights bodies, governments, and diplomatic missions to engage with Asian countries diplomatically, urging them to uphold international human rights standards, including LGBTQ+ rights.

  • PM inaugurates Nalanda University  

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister has inaugurated the new campus of Nalanda University, an international institution located near the ancient ruins of Nalanda in Rajgir, Bihar.

    Revival of Nalanda University

    • The idea to revive Nalanda University was proposed by former president Dr APJ Abdul Kalam in 2006, leading to the passing of the Nalanda University Bill in 2010.
    • The university’s revival was operationally launched in 2014 from a temporary location.
    • Former president Pranab Mukherjee laid the foundation stone for the permanent campus in 2016, with construction starting in 2017 and culminating in today’s inauguration.
    • The Parliament established the university following decisions from the second East Asia Summit (EAS) in 2007 and the fourth EAS in 2009.

    International Collaboration and Courses

    • Nalanda University has participation from 17 countries, including Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Indonesia, and others, which have signed MoUs to support the university.
    • It offers 137 scholarships to international students, sponsored by the ASEAN-India Fund, BIMSTEC, and Bhutan’s Ministry of External Affairs.
    • The university provides postgraduate and doctoral research courses, as well as short-term certificate courses.

    Historical Background

    • Nalanda University was established in the 5th century CE in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Bihar) and was the world’s first residential university.
    • Establishment and Patronage:
      • The Gupta dynasty, under Emperor Kumaragupta I, established Nalanda University in 427 AD, promoting it as a premier center for Buddhist scholarship.
      • It received substantial endowments from monarchs like King Harsha and rulers of the Pala Empire, enhancing its stature and influence across Asia.
    • Countries: It attracted scholars from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
    • Subjects taught included medicine, Ayurveda, Buddhism, mathematics, grammar, astronomy, and Indian philosophy.
    • The university thrived under the patronage of the Pala dynasty during the 8th and 9th centuries CE and made significant contributions to mathematics and astronomy.
    • Aryabhatta, a pioneer of Indian mathematics and the inventor of zero, was one of the esteemed educators at Nalanda.

    Admission and Academic Rigor

    • Admission to Nalanda was highly competitive, akin to today’s top institutions like IIT, IIM, or Ivy League schools.
    • Students underwent rigorous interviews and were mentored by scholars and Buddhist masters like Dharmapala and Silabhadra.
    • The university’s library, known as ‘Dharma Gunj’ or the ‘Mountain of Truth,’ contained 9 million handwritten palm-leaf manuscripts, making it the richest repository of Buddhist knowledge.

    Destruction and Rediscovery

    • In the 1190s, Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turko-Afghan military general, destroyed Nalanda University by arson, which burned for three months and destroyed invaluable Buddhist manuscripts.
    • Some surviving manuscripts are preserved in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Yarlung Museum in Tibet.
    • The university was rediscovered in 1812 by Scottish surveyor Francis Buchanan-Hamilton and officially identified in 1861 by Sir Alexander Cunningham.

    Scholarly Influence

    • Nalanda’s intellectual legacy includes contributions from scholars like Nagarjuna, known for his foundational work in the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, and his disciple Aryadeva.
    • Dharmapala’s commentaries further enriched Buddhist philosophy.
    • These scholars’ insights into metaphysics and epistemology extended Nalanda’s influence, shaping religious and philosophical thought across Asia and inspiring subsequent generations of thinkers.

    Foreign Travellers Account of Nalanda University 

    Visit Period Key Details
    Xuanzang 7th century CE
    • Described Nalanda as vast with lecture halls and residential quarters.
    • Noted a large library with thousands of manuscripts.
    • Mentioned numerous teachers and students engaged in debates.
    • Provided detailed records of Nalanda’s organization and academic activities.
    I-Tsing 7th century CE
    • Spent several years studying at Nalanda.
    • Emphasized rigorous academic environment.
    • Noted diverse student population from Asia.
    • Contributed to understanding Nalanda’s curriculum and scholarly environment.
    Al-Biruni 11th century CE
    • Wrote about Nalanda’s reputation as a premier center of learning in India.
    • Highlighted its attraction for scholars across Asia.
    • Introduced Nalanda’s achievements to the medieval Islamic world.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate.

    [2018] Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of the history of India.

    [2014] Taxila university was one of the oldest universities of the world with which were associated a number of renowned learned personalities of different disciplines. Its strategic location caused its fame to flourish, but unlike Nalanda, it is not considered as a university in the modern sense. Discuss.

  • Critical Minerals under iCET

    Why in the News?

    What are Critical Minerals?

    • Critical minerals are elements that are crucial to modern-day technologies and are at risk of supply chain disruptions.
    • These minerals are mostly used in making electronic equipment such as mobile phones, computers, batteries, electric vehicles, and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines.
    • Many of these are required to meet the manufacturing needs of green technologies, high-tech equipment, aviation, and national defence.

    List of critical minerals includes:

    The centre has released a list of 30 critical minerals for India in 2023:

    1. Identified Minerals: Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, Platinum Group elements (PGE), Phosphorous, Potash, Rare Earth Elements (REE), Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium and Cadmium.
    2. Fertilizer Minerals: Two minerals critical for fertilizer production, phosphorous and potash, are also included in the above list.

    Critical Mineral Blocks in India

    • Distribution: There are 20 blocks spread across eight states, including Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Jammu & Kashmir.
    • Types of Licenses: Four blocks are for a Mining License (ML), allowing immediate mining post-clearance. The remaining 16 blocks are for a Composite License (CL), permitting further exploration before potentially converting to an ML.
    • Approvals Required: Licensees must obtain various approvals, including forest clearance and environmental clearance.
    • Forest Land: Approximately 17% of the total concession area, or 1,234 hectares, is forest land.

    India’s Critical Mineral Imports

    • Lithium Imports: In FY23, India imported 2,145 tonnes of lithium carbonate and lithium oxide, costing Rs 732 crore.
    • Nickel and Copper Imports: The country imported 32,000 tonnes of unwrought nickel and 1.2 million tonnes of copper ore, costing Rs 6,549 crore and Rs 27,374 crore, respectively.
    • Import Dependence: India relies entirely on imports for lithium and nickel, and 93% for copper.

    Country-wise dependence:

    1. China: India heavily relies on China for the import of critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite.
    2. Australia: India is actively engaged with Australia for acquiring mineral assets, particularly lithium and cobalt, to secure its supply chain for critical minerals.
    3. Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile: India is engaging with these countries, known for their reserves of battery metals like lithium and cobalt, to diversify its sources for critical minerals.

    India’s Strategic Mineral Initiatives

    • Amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 support expanded exploration.
    • Establishment of Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. (KABIL) with equity from National Aluminium Company Ltd, Hindustan Copper Ltd, and Mineral Exploration and Consultancy Ltd for global mineral asset acquisition.

    International Collaborations and Partnerships

    • India joined the U.S.-led mineral security partnership to secure critical mineral supply chains.
    • Creation of an India-U.S. advanced materials research forum to foster collaboration in universities, laboratories, and private sectors.
    • Bilateral technology collaboration on neodymium-iron-boron and studies on minerals like lithium, titanium, gallium, and vanadium.

    Back2Basics: Indo-US Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (iCET)

    Details
    Initiation Announced in May 2022, officially launched in January 2023
    Management Overseen by the National Security Councils of India and the US
    Objectives Enhance bilateral cooperation in critical and emerging technologies
    Focus Areas of the Initiative
    1. AI Research Agency Partnership
    2. Defense Industrial and Technological Cooperation
    3. Innovation Ecosystems
    4. Semiconductor Ecosystem Development
    5. Cooperation on Human Spaceflight
    6. Advancement in 5G and 6G Technologies
    Key Achievements
    • Quantum Coordination Mechanism
    • Public-private dialogues on telecommunications and AI
    • MoU on semiconductor supply chain
    • Defense industrial cooperation roadmap
    Upcoming Initiatives
    • Finalization of major jet engine deal
    • Launch of India-US Defence Acceleration Ecosystem (INDUS-X)
    • Strategic Trade Dialogue establishment

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements:

    1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
    2. State governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
    3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • An Ageing India: The Magnitude and the Multitude 

    Why in the News?

    The phenomenon of ageing stands out as one of the most significant developments of this century, characterized by notable advancements in human longevity alongside historically low reproduction rates.

    About the Magnitude and Multiplication of the aged population

    • The magnitude of Aging Population: The 21st century is witnessing a significant demographic shift marked by a notable increase in human longevity.
      • Improved healthcare and living conditions have contributed to a rise in life expectancy, leading to a larger elderly population. By mid-century, India is projected to have around 319 million elderly people, growing at a rate of approximately 3% annually.
    • Multiplication of Aging Phenomenon: Despite longevity gains, there is a simultaneous decline in fertility rates, leading to an ageing population with a lower proportion of younger generations.
      • This demographic shift poses challenges related to healthcare, social security, and economic sustainability. The elderly population is becoming increasingly feminized, with a higher prevalence of elderly women due to longer life expectancy and higher widowhood rates.

    Aged Population as per the 2011 Census:

    • According to the 2011 Census of India, the population of people aged 60 and older in India was 104 million, which is 8.6% of the total population. This is an increase from 5.6% in 1961.
    • The census also found that 53 million of the elderly population were female and 51 million were male, with a sex ratio of 1033. 71% of the elderly population lived in rural areas and 29% lived in urban areas. Additionally, 5.18% of the elderly population, or 53,76,619 people, had some disability

    Issues and Challenges

    • Vulnerabilities of the Elderly: Many elderly individuals in India face significant vulnerabilities, including limitations in activities of daily living (ADL), multi-morbidity, poverty, and lack of financial security.
      • A substantial proportion of the elderly report poor health conditions, with a high prevalence of chronic diseases such as diabetes and cancer.
      • Mental health issues, particularly depression, are also prevalent among the elderly population.
    • Social and Economic Insecurities: Food insecurity affects a notable percentage of the elderly, with reports of reduced portions or skipped meals due to economic constraints.
    • Lack of legal protection: Awareness and access to welfare measures and legal protections for the elderly are low, with limited knowledge about schemes like IGNOAPS, IGNWPS, and Annapurna.
    • Abuse and Neglect: Elder abuse is a significant concern, especially for elderly women in rural areas who often experience neglect and mistreatment within their families and communities.
      • Social exclusion and limited opportunities for productive engagement exacerbate feelings of insecurity and marginalization among the elderly.

    Way Forward:

    • Enhancing Social Support and Welfare Measures: Strengthening awareness and accessibility of welfare schemes and legal protections for the elderly. Implementing social security measures to ensure financial stability and improve quality of life for ageing populations.
    • Healthcare and Mental Well-being: Prioritizing healthcare interventions tailored to the needs of the elderly, including preventive measures against chronic diseases and mental health support. Promoting healthy ageing through lifestyle interventions and healthcare policies that address the unique challenges of an ageing population.
    • Empowerment and Social Inclusion: Fostering social inclusion through community engagement and initiatives that empower the elderly to contribute actively to society. Developing innovative institutional frameworks that value the elderly as assets and promote their participation in societal development.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q. Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India. (UPSC IAS/2013)

  • [17th June 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: High Court’s take on Marriage Act, an erosion of rights

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q Discuss the possible factors that inhibit India from enacting for its citizen a uniform civil code as provided for in the Directive Principles of State Policy. (UPSC IAS/2015)

    Q  Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree? (UPSC IAS/2020)

    Mentor comment: Interfaith marriages in India face legal and societal challenges despite protections under the Special Marriage Act, 1954. Recent judicial interventions have raised concerns about misinterpretations, impacting couples’ rights to choose partners freely. Such marriages often encounter opposition from families and communities, leading to social tensions. Efforts to protect couples through legal frameworks are crucial amid ongoing debates on religious and cultural sensitivities.

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    • A recent order from the Madhya Pradesh High Court has raised concerns about the interpretation of the law regarding inter-faith marriages and the scope of the Special Marriage Act, 1954.
    About Special Marriage Act, 1954:

    •The SMA was passed by the Parliament on October 9, 1954.
    •It governs a civil marriage where the state sanctions the marriage rather than the religion.
    •The minimum age to get married under the SMA is 21 years for males and 18 years for females.
    Need for SMA:
    •Issues of personal law such as marriage, divorce, and adoption are governed by religious laws that are codified.
    •These laws, such as the Muslim Marriage Act,1954, and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, require either spouse to convert to the religion of the other before marriage.
    •However, the SMA enables marriage between inter-faith or inter-caste couples without them giving up their religious identity or resorting to conversion.

    Erroneous Considerations

    • Typical Assessment Under Article 226: When a petition for police protection is filed under Article 226 of the Constitution, the High Court usually assesses the violation of the petitioners’ rights and the threat they face.
    • Extended Protection Examples:
    • The Madras High Court granted protection to a lesbian couple, recognizing the dangers they faced.
    • The Punjab and Haryana High Court provided protection to a live-in couple, emphasizing the protection of their fundamental rights under Article 21 of the Constitution.
    • Contrasting Focus of Madhya Pradesh HC: Instead of focusing on the threats faced by the couple, the HC focused on the validity of the couple’s impending marriage, disregarding their right to life and liberty.
    What is Article 226 of the Constitution?: 
    Article 226 grants the High Courts of Indian states the power to issue writs. These writs are primarily meant for the enforcement of fundamental rights guaranteed under Part III of the Constitution or for any other legal purpose. The High Courts have the authority to issue writs such as habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari.

    Dilution of the Special Marriage Act

    • Contradictory Order: The Madhya Pradesh High Court’s order contradicts the core principles of the Special Marriage Act.
    • Irrelevant Supreme Court Precedent: The court erroneously relied on a Supreme Court precedent related to property succession under Mohammedan Laws, which is irrelevant to the validity of inter-faith marriages under the Special Marriage Act.
    • Misinterpretation of Section 4: The court misinterpreted Section 4 of the Act, which excludes marriages between close relatives, not inter-faith marriages.
    • Act’s Purpose: The Act is designed to facilitate marriage between any two Indian nationals, regardless of their faith.

    Present status of Special Marriages:

    • Significance of the Order: The Madhya Pradesh High Court order is significant given the current social and political climate, where inter-faith and inter-caste marriages face vigilantism and right-wing propaganda.
    • Ongoing Petitions: There are ongoing petitions challenging unconstitutional provisions within the Special Marriage Act, such as the prior notice requirement, pending before the Supreme Court.
    • Supreme Court’s Ruling in Shafin Jahan Case:
    • Emphasized the protection of personal liberty and the right to choose a life partner, regardless of faith or caste.
    • Justice D.Y. Chandrachud’s judgment highlighted that intimate personal decisions do not require social approval and are protected by the Constitution.

    Way forward

    • Disregard of Shafin Jahan Judgment: The Madhya Pradesh High Court’s order disregards the spirit of the Shafin Jahan judgment, which prioritizes individual autonomy, privacy, and liberty.
    • Courts’ Responsibility: Constitutional courts must remember that jurisprudence favours autonomy and personal liberty.

    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/high-courts-take-on-marriage-act-an-erosion-of-rights/article68297655.ece

  • Unsolved issue of the Buddha Relics from Bavikonda

    Why in the News?

    • Ten years after the division of Telangana from united Andhra Pradesh, the distribution of antiquities, manuscripts, and cultural objects remains contentious.
      • The custody of objects like Buddha Relics from Bavikonda are part of this dispute.

    About Bavikonda Buddhist Complex

    • Bavikonda, a significant ancient Buddhist site dating from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, is located along the Eastern Coastline of Andhra Pradesh near Visakhapatnam on the way to Bheemunipatnam.
    • It is located an ancient trade route linking Andhradesa with North India via Kalinga, along with its proximity to ancient ports.
    • The discovery of Roman silver coins further supports this historical context.
    • The site also features Buddhapada slabs intricately carved with Ashtamangala symbols, found on the platforms surrounding the Mahachaitya.

    About Buddha Relics from Bavikonda

    • The relics were discovered in 1993 during archaeological excavations conducted by the Andhra Pradesh Department of Archaeology and Museums (DAM).
    • These discoveries have significantly contributed to our understanding of the spread of Buddhism in the region during the post-Ashoka period along the Krishna River basin.
    • Nature of Relics:
    • The site at Bavikonda yielded several earthen vessels containing gold objects and precious beads.
    • These relics are believed to include corporeal remains (related to skull) of the Buddha, along with silver and gold caskets.
    • These were found alongside an earthen urn or receptacle (Samudgaka) containing ashy deposits and burnt charcoal.

    Noted Buddhavanam Sites in Andhra Region

    • Thotlakonda: Located near Visakhapatnam, Thotlakonda is another prominent Buddhist site dating back to the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. It consists of monastic complexes, stupas, chaityas, viharas, and a university. Excavations have revealed relics and artifacts indicating it was a major center for Buddhist learning and trade.
    • Salihundam: Situated near Srikakulam, Salihundam dates from the 2nd century BC to the 12th century AD. It features remnants of stupas, votive stupas, monastic complexes, and sculptures. The site is noted for its architectural and sculptural heritage, reflecting a blend of Buddhist and Hindu influences over centuries.
    • Pavurallakonda: Close to Bheemunipatnam, Pavurallakonda is a Buddhist hilltop monastery dating back to the 3rd century BC to the 2nd century AD. It includes viharas, chaityas, and relic caskets. The site offers panoramic views of the coastline, adding to its spiritual ambiance.
    • Ghantasala: Located near Krishna district, Ghantasala served as an ancient Buddhist site from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. It contains stupas, viharas, and relics that indicate its significance as a trading hub and center for Buddhist teachings.
    • Nagarjunakonda: Situated in the Guntur district, Nagarjunakonda is an island on the Krishna River that flourished from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. It boasts numerous Buddhist monasteries, stupas, chaityas, and sculptures. The site is renowned for its architectural grandeur and extensive archaeological findings.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of Buddha?

    1. Avanti
    2. Gandhara
    3. Kosala
    4. Magadha

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1, 2 and 3

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4

    (d) 3 and 4 only

  • ‘Cold Lava’ Rivers flow in Philippines after Mount Canlaon eruption

    Why in the News?

    • After Mount Canlaon erupted in the Philippines, cold lava started flowing through streets and rivers.
      • It was followed by ashfall, and dangers like floods and mudflows downstream.

    What is Cold Lava?

    • Cold lava, also known as “lahar,” is a mixture of water and rock fragments that flows rapidly down the slopes of a volcano, often triggered by heavy rainfall or volcanic eruptions.
    • The mixture forms a concrete-like substance that destroys everything in its path.
    • This can also include smooth, glassy textures or rough and jagged textures.

    Another example of cold Lava in the world

    • Mount Merapi, Indonesia (2023): An eruption of Mount Merapi resulted in the deaths of at least 23 climbers and spewed ash up to 3,000 meters into the air, covering towns and villages

    How harmful is Cold Lava?

    • Rain can carry cold lava down the slopes of a volcano during an eruption and into the path of nearby towns or villages.
    • According to the United States Geological Survey, cold lava has the power to crush and bury things in its path.
    • It also moves quickly like wet concrete and is considered more destructive than hot lava.

    About Mount Canlaon

    • Mount Canlaon, located in the Philippines, is an active stratovolcano known for its frequent eruptions and volcanic activity.
    • It is situated on the island of Negros in the Visayas region of the Philippines.
    • It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, known for its high volcanic activity.
    • It poses hazards such as ash fall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows) that can endanger nearby communities and agriculture.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.

  • Cultural significance of Uttarakhand’s Joshimath and Kosiyakutoli 

    Why in the News?

    • The Centre approved the Uttarakhand government’s proposal to rename Joshimath tehsil to Jyotirmath and Kosiyakutoli tehsil to Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham.
      • This decision aims to enhance the religious and cultural significance of these areas, boosting their status as major destinations for religious tourism.

    About Jyotirmath 

    • Jyotirmath, also known as Jyotir Peeth, is one of the four cardinal mathas established by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century to promote Advaita Vedanta philosophy.
    • Adi Shankaracharya performed penance under the Amar Kalpavriksha tree here, symbolising his attainment of divine knowledge (Jyoti).
    • Evolution to Joshimath:
      • Name Transition: Originally known as Jyotirmath, the town gradually adopted the name Joshimath over time, influenced by regional languages and dialects.
      • Cultural Evolution: The shift from Jyotirmath to Joshimath reflects a cultural and linguistic evolution rather than a specific historical event.

    About Adi Shankaracharya (c 788 CE-820 CE)

    Details
    Philosopher and Theologian Prominent advocate of ancient Hinduism, known as Sankara (Jagatguru).
    Birthplace Kaladi in Ernakulam, Kerala, soon to be declared a national monument.
    Guru Govinda Bhagavatpada, from whom he learned extensively.
    Philosophies Advocated Advaita Vedanta and established Dashanami Sampradaya.
    Advaita Vedanta
    • Non-dualistic philosophy asserts the identity of Atman (self) and Brahman (ultimate reality).
    • Maya (creative energy) of Brahman creates the world.
    • Liberation through understanding Brahman and overcoming Avidya (ignorance).
    Key Disciples Padmapada, Totakacharya, Hasta Malaka, and Sureshwara – played crucial roles in spreading his teachings.
    Contributions
    • Introduced the Shanmata system and restored the Dashanami structure.
    • Established four Mathas (monastic institutions) across India.
    • Authored commentaries on major Hindu scriptures and composed hymns.
    Mathas Established Sri Sringeri Sharada Peetam (Karnataka), Jyotir Matha (Uttarakhand),

    Kalika Matha (Gujarat), Govardhana Matha (Odisha).

     

    About Kosiyakutoli  

    • Kosiyakutoli, now renamed Pargana Shri Kainchi Dham, aligns with the identity of Neem Karoli Baba’s Kainchi Dham Ashram.
    • “Kosi” refers to the river flowing through the Nainital district, which is crucial for the local ecology and economy.
    • Association with Neem Karoli Baba:
      • The ashram, founded in 1962, continues to draw thousands of visitors annually, including prominent figures like Steve Jobs and Ram Dass.
    PYQ:

    [2014] Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?

    (a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

    (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika

    (c) Lokayata and Kapalika

    (d) Sankhya and Yoga

  • UNESCO heritage site of Delos, Greece

    Why in the News?

    • Delos, a UNESCO World Heritage site situated close to Mykonos, Greece, played a pivotal role as a sanctuary in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations.
      • Scientists warn that Delos faces imminent destruction within the next 50 years due to rising sea levels caused by climate change.

    About Delos

    • Delos is a small island located in the Aegean Sea, part of the Cyclades archipelago in Greece.
    • It is considered as the birthplace of Apollo, the god of light, arts, and healing, and his sister Artemis, the goddess of the hunt.
    • Its ancient ruins date back to the 3rd millennium BCE.
    • These ruins include temples, houses, sanctuaries, theatres, and other public buildings.
    • It served as a port and trading hub, connecting the civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean with those of the west.
    • Delos was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990.
    • Ruins and Monuments: 
      • Some of the most notable ruins and monuments on Delos include the Terrace of the Lions, the Temple of Apollo, the House of the Dolphins, the Theater District, and the Sacred Lake.

    About UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS)

    Details
    Definition A WHS is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by UNESCO.
    Criteria WHS are designated for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other forms of significance.
    World Heritage Convention
    • 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage established the framework for preserving the world’s outstanding heritage.
    • 191 State Parties, including India, have ratified the World Heritage Convention.
    Number of Sites There are currently 1,172 World Heritage Sites across 166 countries.
    Types of Sites
    • 913 cultural sites
    • 220 natural sites
    • 39 mixed properties
    World Heritage Committee Evaluate nominated sites and inscribe them on the World Heritage List.
    Preservation Member states commit to protecting their World Heritage Sites.
    World Heritage Fund The fund, supported by member contributions, provides assistance for preserving sites.
    Selection Criteria Sites must demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) by meeting criteria defined in the Convention.
    Advisory Bodies International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assess nominated sites.
    Criteria for Cultural Sites Six criteria for significance related to human creative genius, cultural interchange, unique testimony, outstanding examples of architecture, tradition, and events.
    Criteria for Natural Sites Four criteria for significance related to natural phenomena, Earth’s evolutionary history, ecological processes, and biological diversity.
    Legal Status Once inscribed, each site remains the property of the state it belongs to, with shared responsibility for its preservation and protection.
    Obligations Member states are obligated to integrate heritage protection into regional planning, report on-site conditions, and preserve sites for future generations.
    Enforcement The Committee may provide assistance, deploy experts, or delist sites in extreme cases of endangerment.

    Important Sites in India:

    • There are 42 World Heritage Sites in India.
    • Out of these, 34 are cultural, 7 are natural, and 1, Khangchendzonga National Park, is of mixed type.
    • India has the sixth-most sites worldwide.
    • The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal, all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee.
    • The most recent sites listed were Santiniketan and the Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas, in 2023.

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which one of the following National Parks has a climate that varies from tropical to subtropical, temperate and arctic?

    (a) Khangchendzonga National Park

    (b) Nandadevi National Park

    (c) Neora Valley National Park

    (d) Namdapha National Park