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GS Paper: GS3

  • What is the Green Credit Programme?

    Why in the News?

    The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.

    About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)

    • The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
    • It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
    • Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
    • These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
    • It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
    • The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.

    Criticisms of the Program:

    • Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
    • Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
    • Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
    • Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

    (a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm

     

  • RBI celebrates 90 years

    Why in the News?

    The first monetary policy of RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra in 2025 marks 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935.

    RBI’s First Monetary Policy in 1935

    • On July 3, 1935, RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, reflecting the Imperial Bank’s rate.
    • The CRR was set at 5% of demand liabilities and 2% of time liabilities on July 5, 1935.

    Evolution of RBI’s Monetary Policy

    • Bank Rate in Early RBI History:
      • The bank rate was a key tool introduced by the RBI in 1935 to control credit and liquidity. On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, mirroring the rate of its predecessor, the Imperial Bank of India.
      • The RBI Act (1934) mandated its use for buying or re-discounting commercial paper, and it played a crucial role in India’s interest rate structure.
    • Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
      • The CRR, introduced by the RBI, required banks to maintain a percentage of their deposits as reserves.
      • Influenced by the Federal Reserve Act of the USA, the CRR helped stabilize the banking system, especially during failures.
      • The CRR was set at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities in 1935, with adjustments made over time.
    • Exchange Rate Management
      • In 1935, the RBI managed the exchange rate of the 1 Indian rupee at 1 shilling and 6 pence.
      • This caused friction between nationalists, who favoured a lower exchange rate to boost exports, and the British, who preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.
    • Disputes Between Government and RBI
      • The RBI’s decision to reduce the bank rate in 1935 was opposed by the government, fearing rupee depreciation.
      • This led to a conflict, resulting in the resignation of Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
      • The incident highlighted tensions between the RBI’s monetary autonomy and government priorities.

    About Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

    • The RBI is the central bank and monetary authority of India established on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
    • Its idea was incepted from the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission.
    • Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, served as the inaugural Governor.
    • He was succeeded by Sir C D Deshmukh, the first Indian to hold the position.
    • It is a centralized institution for India to effectively regulate its monetary and credit policies.
    • RBI had its initial headquarters in Kolkata, later moving permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
    • Initially, the RBI operated as a privately owned entity until its full nationalization in 1949.

    Functions and Initiatives:

    • Monetary Authority: The RBI controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rates, maintain a healthy balance of payment, and control inflation.
    • Issuer of Currency: Sole authority to issue currency and combat circulation of counterfeit notes.
    • Banker to the Government: Acts as a banker to both the Central and State governments, providing short-term credit and financial advisory services.
    • Lender of Last Resort: Provides emergency liquidity assistance to banks during crises.
    • Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: Manages foreign exchange reserves and administers the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
    • Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: Oversees payment and settlement systems in the country, ensuring efficiency and security.
    • Credit Control and Developmental Role: Promotes credit availability to productive sectors and fosters financial infrastructure development.

    Dr. Ambedkar’s Role in the Establishment of RBI:

    • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions were particularly notable during the Hilton Young Commission discussions in 1926, where he presented his recommendations based on his book “The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.”
    • These discussions laid the foundation for establishing the RBI on April 1, 1935.

     

    [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:

    1. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized on 26 January 1950.

    2. The borrowing programme of the Government of India is handled by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • [pib] Exercise Tiger Triumph

    Why in the News?

    The 4th edition of Exercise Tiger Triumph, a bilateral tri-service Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) exercise, will be held on the Eastern Seaboard of India, with activities taking place in Visakhapatnam and Kakinada.

    About Exercise Tiger Triumph

    • The exercise was first announced by then U.S. President Donald Trump during the Howdy Modi event in Houston on September 22, 2019.
    • The inaugural exercise took place from November 13 to 21, 2019.
    • It involved approximately 1,200 Indian personnel and 500 U.S. military members, with key participation from the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Pacific.
      • Harbour Phase: Held in Visakhapatnam, including training visits, expert exchanges, and social interactions.
      • Sea Phase: Conducted in Kakinada, focusing on practical HADR operations like field hospital setups and evacuation drills.

    Subsequent Editions of Exercise Tiger Triumph:

    • 2022 Edition: Emphasized disaster relief coordination, with tabletop simulations to improve operational readiness.
    • 2024 Edition: Focused on refining standard operating procedures (SOPs) and included a battalion group from the Indian Army.

    Important Features:

    • Interoperability Enhancement: The exercise aims to improve the coordination between Indian and U.S. forces during disaster response situations, ensuring rapid deployment and effective collaboration.
    • Humanitarian Assistance Focus: The exercise simulates responses to natural disasters like super-cyclones, refining diplomatic, operational, and logistical efforts in such crises.
    • Strengthening Bilateral Ties: Joint drills and exchanges during the exercise serve to fortify the strategic partnership between India and the U.S., focusing on shared best practices and operational capabilities.
    [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
    Select the answer using the code given below:
    (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

     

  • [pib] NITI NCAER States Economic Forum

    Why in the News?

    The Finance Minister is set to launch the “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal.

    About the NITI NCAER States Economic Forum Portal

    • The “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal is a comprehensive digital platform developed by NITI Aayog in collaboration with the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER).
    • It serves as a centralized repository of data, research reports, and expert commentary on state-level finances and social, economic, and fiscal parameters spanning from 1990-91 to 2022-23.
    • The portal aims to facilitate evidence-based policymaking by providing users with easy access to key trends and insights on state performance.

    Features of NITI NCAER: 

      1. State Reports: Summarizes the macro and fiscal landscape of 28 Indian states. Structured around indicators on demography, economic structure, socio-economic, and fiscal parameters.
      2. Data Repository: Access to a comprehensive database categorized into 5 verticals: Demography; Economic Structure; Fiscal Data; Health; Education.
      3. State Fiscal and Economic Dashboard: Provides graphical representations of key economic variables over time; Includes summary tables and raw data for easy reference.
      4. Research and Commentary: Offers in-depth research reports and expert commentary on state finances, fiscal policy, and financial management; Supports long-term academic and policy research.

    Significance:

    • Benchmarking Capabilities: it enables comparison of state performance with national averages, fostering a competitive and cooperative approach to development.
    • Data Accessibility: it bridges data accessibility gaps, ensuring that policymakers, researchers, and academics can make informed decisions based on reliable and comprehensive data.
    • Promotes Transparency: By offering open access to detailed data, the portal enhances fiscal transparency and encourages cooperative federalism.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1.The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Review Committee Report has recommended a debt to GDP ratio of 60% for the general (combined) government by 2023, comprising 40% for the Central Government and 20% for the State Governments.

    2.The Central Government has domestic liabilities of 21% of GDP as compared to that of 49% of GDP of the State Governments.

    3.As per the Constitution of India, it is mandatory for a State to take the Central Government’s consent for raising any loan if the former owes any outstanding liabilities to the latter.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Majorana 1 Chip and the Pursuit of Quantum Computing

    Why in the News?

    In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.

    About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind

    • Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
    • This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
    • Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
    • This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
    • This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
    • Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
      • This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
      • They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
      • Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.

    Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):

    • Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:
    1. Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
    2. Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
    • What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
      • If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
      • This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.

    AMoRE Experiment:

    • The AMoRE experiment is being conducted in South Korea to detect this rare 0vßß decay.
    • The experiment uses molybdenum-100 (Mo-100), which is known to undergo double beta decay. The team is measuring the energy differences in electron emissions to detect the 0vßß decay.
    • While no evidence has been found yet, the experiment continues to improve its sensitivity by using 100 kg of Mo-100 for more accurate measurements.

    Scientific Significance:

    • The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
    • Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.
    [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

     

  • Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

    Why in the News?

    SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.

    About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

    • The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
    • The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
    • Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
    • Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
    • The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
    • The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.

    Features and Significance:

    • Unique Orbital Path:
      • Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
      • This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
    • Scientific Research:
      • The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
      • Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
    • Climate Change Research:
      • As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.
    [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

    The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in

    1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.

    2. predicting the onset of monsoons.

    3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • IISc’s Bacteria-Based Technique for Lunar Habitat Construction

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.

    About the Bacterial Brick:

    • The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
    • It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
    • How is it made?
      • The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
      • The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
      • The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.

    Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:

    • The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
    • A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
      • When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
    • This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
      • It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
    [UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?

    1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.

    2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.

    3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

    Why in the News?

    The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

    Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

    About Parker Solar Probe

    • The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
    • It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
    • The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
    • This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
      • The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
    • The primary goals are:
      • Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
      • Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
      • Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
      • Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
    • The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
      • FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
      • ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
      • SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
      • WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
      • Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.

    Impact of the Mission on Solar Science

    • Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
    • Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
    • New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
    • Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
    • Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.
    [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

    1.        GPS and navigation systems could fail.

    2.        Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

    3.        Power grids could be damaged.

    4.        Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

    5.        Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

    6.        Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

    7.        Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only

    (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only

    (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

  • Over 1,000 species of Fungi threatened with extinction: IUCN

    Why in the News?

    The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List now includes 1,300 fungi species, of which 1000 species are at risk of extinction due to various environmental pressures.

    Important Species under Threat:

    • Fibrous Waxcap (Hygrocybe intermedia): A Vulnerable species of fungi found in Europe, facing threats from habitat loss and land-use changes.
    • 279 Species at Risk: Threatened by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urban development, leading to habitat loss.
    • 91 Species Threatened by Pollution: Nitrogen and ammonia runoff from fertilizers and industrial activities.
    • 50+ Species at Risk Due to Fire Patterns: Changes in fire cycles, especially in USA, making certain fungi species vulnerable in forest ecosystems.

    About Fungi:

    • Fungi belong to the kingdom Fungi, distinct from animals, plants, and bacteria. They are eukaryotic organisms and include moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and mildews.
    • Key Properties:
      • Fungi have chitin in their cell walls and form hyphae that create a mycelium network.
      • They are heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from organic material.
      • They reproduce sexually and asexually through spores.
    • Types of Fungi:
      • Molds: Multicellular, fuzzy fungi.
      • Yeasts: Unicellular fungi used in fermentation.
      • Mushrooms: Fruiting bodies of certain fungi, often edible.
    • Ecological Role: Fungi are crucial in decomposition and nutrient cycling. Some form beneficial relationships with plants (mycorrhizae) to aid in nutrient absorption.
    • Uses:
      • Medicines: Fungi like penicillin have revolutionized medicine.
      • Food: Edible fungi include mushrooms and truffles.
      • Beverages: Yeasts are key in bread, beer, and wine production.
    [UPSC 2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms?​

    1. Cnidarians​

    2. Fungi ​

    3. Protozoa​

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • India’s Coal Dependence rose to 79%

    Why in the News?

    According to MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.

    Share of Coal in India’s Energy Basket:

    • Dominance: As of 2023-24, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.
    • Production Growth: In 2023-24, India saw a 12% increase in coal production, continuing a strong growth trajectory from the 15% growth in 2022-23, marking one of the fastest growth rates in the past decade.
    • Dependence on Imports: Despite a surge in domestic production, India remains 26% dependent on coal imports, although this has decreased from 31% in 2019-20.

    India’s Total Energy Basket:

    • Coal: Discussed above.
    • Nuclear Energy: Nuclear power contributes approximately 1.7% to the total electricity generation capacity, with an installed capacity of about 8,180 MW as of late 2024.
    • Crude Oil: The share of crude oil has decreased from 11% in 2014-15 to 6% in 2023-24, indicating a long-term decline in its contribution to India’s energy mix.
    • Natural Gas: Similarly, natural gas’s share has decreased from 9% in 2014-15 to 7% in 2023-24, reflecting a shift away from natural gas in the energy mix.
    • Renewable Energy: Despite significant investments and efforts by the government, renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear) contribute only 7% to the total energy mix in 2023-24, showing slow but steady growth over the past decade.

    Shift Towards Renewable Energy:

    • Total Contribution: Renewable sources contributed 7% of India’s total energy production in 2023-24, a modest increase from 6% in 2014-15. While this share remains small, the absolute production from renewables has grown at a 6.76% CAGR over the past 10 years.
    • Growth in Solar and Wind Energy:
      • The generation from solar, wind, and other renewable sources (excluding large hydro) has surged by 210% over the last decade, increasing from 6,555 KToE in FY15 to 20,279 KToE in FY24.
    • Key Renewable Energy Potential:
      • Wind energy holds the largest share of India’s renewable potential at 55.17%, with an estimated potential of 11,63,856 MW.
      • Solar energy is the second-largest contributor at 35.50%, with a potential of 7,48,990 MW.
      • Large hydro contributes 6.32% of the renewable energy potential with 1,33,410 MW.
    • Future Targets:
      • India added 3.4 GW of new wind capacity in 2024, with Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), and Tamil Nadu (980 MW) leading the way.
      • India is aiming for 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030, which would significantly boost the share of renewables in the energy mix, reducing the reliance on coal and crude oil over the coming years.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

    1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.

    2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.

    3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and