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GS Paper: GS3

  • World Spice Organisation (WSO)

    Why in the News?

    Despite being the largest producer and exporter of spices in the world, India’s share in the global seasoning market remains only 0.7%, compared to China’s 12% and the USA’s 11%, according to the World Spice Organisation (WSO).

    About the World Spice Organisation (WSO)

    • WSO was established in 2011 in Kochi, Kerala, India’s spice capital.
    • It is registered as a Not-for-Profit organization under the Travancore Cochin Literary, Scientific, and Charitable Societies Act, 1956.
    • It works towards food safety, sustainability, and market development for the spice industry.
    • It engages with farmers, processors, industry leaders, academia, and global spice associations.
    • It works with organizations like Spices Board India, Rainforest Alliance, GIZ (Germany), and IDH (Netherlands).
    • Partners with global spice trade bodies like:
      • American Spice Trade Association (ASTA)
      • European Spice Association (ESA)
      • International Pepper Community (IPC)
    • Participates in national and international food safety regulations, including:
      • FSSAI (India’s food safety authority)
      • BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)
      • ISO (International Standards Organization)
      • Codex Alimentarius (Global food safety standards)
    • It serves as the technical partner for the All India Spices Exporters Forum (AISEF).

    Present Scenario of Spices  

    • India currently exports 1.5 million tonnes of spices worth $4.5 billion, accounting for one-fourth of the $20 billion global spice market. However, only 48% of these exports are value-added products, with the rest being whole spices.
    • 85% of India’s spices are consumed domestically, leaving limited surplus for exports.
    • Countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, Brazil, and China are emerging as strong competitors in the spice trade.
    • Production:
      • Major producing states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
      • During 2022-23, the export of spices from India stood at US$ 3.73 billion, up from US$ 3.46 billion in 2021-22.
      • India produces about 75 of the 109 varieties listed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
    • Major Produced and Exported Spices by India:
      • Pepper, cardamom, chili, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, celery, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, nutmeg & mace, curry powder, spice oils, and oleoresins.
      • Out of these spices, chili, cumin, turmeric, ginger, and coriander make up about 76% of the total production.
      • Chilli is the leading export earner, generating $1.1 billion annually.
      • Ginger exports have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 27%.
    • Export:
      • In 2023-24, India’s spice exports totalled $4.25 billion, accounting for a 12% share of the global spice exports (till February 2024 data).
      • India exported spices and spice products to 159 destinations worldwide as of 2023-24. The top destinations were China, the USA, Bangladesh, the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the UK, and Sri Lanka. These countries accounted for more than 70% of total exports.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?

    (a) Spices

    (b) Fresh fruits

    (c) Pulses

    (d) Vegetable oils

     

  • ‘Brahmastra’ Missile

    Why in the News?

    Indian scientists have achieved a breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology, developing a modern-day ‘Brahmastra’ with an astonishing speed of 12,144 km per hour (Mach 10).

    'Brahmastra' Missile

    About Brahmastra (Long Range Anti-Ship Missile – LRAShM): 

    • Brahmastra is a state-of-the-art hypersonic glide missile developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
    • It is designed to neutralize enemy warships and strategic naval targets with extreme speed and precision.
    • With a speed of Mach 10 (12,144 km/h) and a range of 1,500 km, Brahmastra is one of the fastest and most lethal weapons in India’s defense arsenal.
    • The missile’s hypersonic glide vehicle technology allows it to evade enemy radar and missile defense systems, ensuring high-precision strikes on naval targets.

    Features of Brahmastra:

    • It can be launched from both land and naval platforms, enhancing India’s maritime strike capabilities.
    • Due to its hypersonic speed, Brahmastra can destroy an enemy warship within 7 to 8 minutes of launch.
    • The missile is built with advanced heat-resistant materials, preventing it from disintegrating under extreme temperatures during flight.
    • Unlike conventional missiles, Brahmastra retains its structural integrity even at hypersonic speeds, ensuring precise impact.
    • It uses scramjet propulsion and glide vehicle technology for sustained hypersonic flight.
    • It can adjust its trajectory mid-flight, making it highly maneuverable and difficult to intercept.
    • Its stealth and radar-evading capabilities ensure low detection probability, reducing the risk of interception.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.

    2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.

    3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Places in news: Anchar Lake

    Why in the News?

    Anchar Lake, a vital water body in Kashmir, is renowned for producing Nadru (lotus stem), an aquatic delicacy that holds cultural, culinary, and economic significance in the region.

    Places in news: Anchar Lake

    About Anchar Lake 

    • Anchar Lake is situated in Soura, Srinagar near Ganderbal.
    • It is connected to Dal Lake via Amir Khan Nallah, which passes through Gilsar and Khushal Sar Lakes.
    • The lake is a part of the Sindh River Delta and plays a crucial role in supporting local aquatic ecosystems.
    • It is an integral part of the Shallabugh Wetland, which covers 1,675 hectares and serves as a designated bird sanctuary.
    • Its features:
      • It provides an essential habitat for migratory birds and various native aquatic species.
      • It functions as a flood-control reservoir, receiving excess water from Dal Lake during heavy rainfall.
      • It is home to the Hanji community, whose livelihood traditionally depended on fishing and other lake-based activities.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which one of the following is an artificial lake?

    (a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)

    (b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)

    (c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)

    (d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)

     

  • Himalayan tragedy: On avalanches in the Himalayan States

    Why in the News?

    Earlier this week, the Indian Army and Indo-Tibetan Border Police rescued 23 workers trapped under snow and ice after an avalanche in Mana village, Uttarakhand.

    What were the key challenges faced by the rescue teams during the avalanche operation in Mana Village?

    • Harsh Weather Conditions: The rescue teams operated under heavy snowfall and extreme cold at an elevation of 10,500 feet above mean sea level.
    • Blocked Access Routes: Snow-blocked roads required the use of helicopters for evacuation, complicating logistics and delaying rescue efforts.
    • Physical Exhaustion: Rescuers worked in near-continuous 60-hour shifts, demanding immense physical and mental stamina.
    • Buried Structures: Containers housing workers were buried under several feet of snow, ice, and rock, making detection and extraction challenging.
    • Limited Visibility and Navigation: Poor weather conditions hindered visibility, requiring the use of advanced technology like drone-based detection systems.

    Why is Mana village particularly vulnerable to avalanches and other natural disasters?

    • High-Altitude Location: Situated at 10,500 feet above sea level in the upper Himalayas, the village experiences heavy snowfall and extreme weather, increasing the risk of avalanches. Example: The recent avalanche buried containers under several feet of snow, making rescue operations challenging.
    • Geological Instability: The Himalayan region is tectonically active, making the terrain prone to landslides, avalanches, and other natural hazards. Example: Frequent landslides during the monsoon season disrupt roads and infrastructure in Uttarakhand.
    • Seasonal Climate Extremes: Harsh winters with severe snow accumulation create unstable snowpacks that can trigger avalanches. Example: Villagers traditionally migrate to lower areas like Gopeshwar during winter to avoid extreme weather risks.
    • Construction and Human Activity: Ongoing infrastructure projects, such as road-building by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO), disturb the fragile environment and increase disaster risks. Example: Workers were caught in an avalanche while working on a BRO construction site.
    • Proximity to Glacial Zones: Close to glacial areas where melting ice and shifting snowpacks heighten the probability of snow slides. Example: Melting glaciers in the region have previously triggered flash floods, like the 2021 Chamoli disaster.

    What lessons can be learned from other hazardous environments? 

    • Enhanced Shelter Design for Safety: Use reinforced, insulated shelters designed to withstand extreme weather and heavy snow loads, similar to Antarctic research stations. Example: Antarctic research bases like the Amundsen-Scott Station use elevated, modular designs to prevent snow burial and provide long-term safety.
    • Advanced Early Warning Systems: Implement real-time monitoring using satellite imaging, drones, and weather forecasting to detect potential avalanches and other hazards. Example: Switzerland’s avalanche warning system uses advanced sensors and weather models to alert communities and workers in mountainous areas.
    • Comprehensive Safety Protocols and Training: Provide specialized safety training, emergency drills, and evacuation plans to workers in high-risk zones. Example: Oil platforms in the Arctic conduct regular safety drills and have rapid-response systems for extreme weather emergencies.

    How could better infrastructure and safety measures reduce the risks faced by workers in high-altitude, disaster-prone areas? (Way forward)

    • Improved Worker Shelters and Living Conditions: Construct insulated, avalanche-resistant shelters with emergency exits and heating systems to protect workers from harsh weather. Example: The Siachen Glacier military base uses reinforced prefabricated shelters designed to withstand extreme snow and sub-zero temperatures.
    • Deployment of Real-Time Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: Use geospatial technology, drones, and automated weather stations to track snow accumulation and predict avalanches. Example: Japan’s snow monitoring system uses remote sensors to provide early warnings, reducing avalanche risks in mountainous areas.
    • Enhanced Emergency Response Infrastructure: Establish permanent rescue facilities with specialized equipment (e.g., thermal detectors and rapid evacuation routes) for quicker disaster response. Example: The Alps region in Europe maintains well-equipped avalanche rescue stations, ensuring faster response times and reducing casualties.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Differentiate the causes of landslides in the Himalayan region and Western Ghats. (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • India needs to expand its trading base to overcome global headwinds

    Why in the News?

    The rise in the services Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) to 59 in February has brought relief to investors and policymakers.

    What is the Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI)? 

    • The Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) is an economic indicator that measures the business activity in manufacturing and services sectors, indicating expansion if above 50 and contraction if below 50.

    What is the significance of the sharp rise in the services Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI)?

    • Indicator of Economic Expansion: A PMI reading above 50 signifies sectoral growth. The rise to 59 in February reflects a strong rebound in the services sector. Example: Increased demand for financial services and hospitality indicates higher consumer spending and business confidence.
    • Boost to Investor Confidence: A higher PMI suggests a positive business environment, encouraging domestic and foreign investments. Example: Global investors may increase FDI in India’s technology and telecommunication sectors due to sustained growth signals.
    • Job Creation and Income Growth: Growth in the services sector leads to higher employment opportunities and better wages. Example: The rise in IT services and healthcare sectors can create new jobs in software development and medical support.
    • Balancing Manufacturing Weakness: A strong services PMI can offset slowdowns in manufacturing, ensuring overall economic stability. Example: Despite the manufacturing PMI falling to a 14-month low, growth in financial services has maintained economic resilience.
    • Improved Fiscal Outlook: Higher activity in services increases tax revenues, improving the government’s ability to fund infrastructure and social programs. Example: Growth in e-commerce and logistics boosts GST collections, strengthening public finances.

    Which major challenges to India’s services and manufacturing sectors? 

    As per the industry leaders and NASSCOM’s 2025 Strategic Review report, the major challenges are :

    • Technological Disruption from Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI-driven solutions are transforming traditional business models, reducing revenue from new contracts, and reshaping hiring and training practices. Example: Automation in IT services is reducing the need for entry-level jobs, impacting employment growth.
    • Global Protectionism and Rising Tariffs: Increasing reciprocal tariffs and trade barriers, particularly from major economies like the United States, pose a threat to export-oriented industries. Example: U.S. tariffs on Indian textiles and pharmaceuticals may reduce market competitiveness and profit margins.
    • Slowdown in IT Sector Growth: India’s IT sector growth is expected to be 5.1% in FY25, a decline from its historical 16% CAGR, due to reduced demand and shifting client priorities. Example: Major IT firms report fewer large-scale outsourcing contracts as clients adopt in-house AI solutions.
    • Geopolitical Uncertainty: Geopolitical tensions and supply chain disruptions increase business risks and operational costs. Example: Disruptions in the Red Sea trade route affect electronics and automotive supply chains.
    • Potential U.S. Recession Risk: A U.S. economic slowdown could reduce export demand, significantly impacting both manufacturing and services, as the U.S. is India’s largest trading partner. Example: A U.S. recession may lead to fewer orders for Indian IT services, pharmaceuticals, and automotive components.

    How could the reciprocal tariffs announced by the U.S. impact India’s manufacturing sector?

    • Reduced Export Competitiveness: Higher import duties on Indian goods will increase prices in the U.S. market, making Indian products less competitive against local and other global manufacturers. Example: Indian textile exports to the U.S. could decline as higher tariffs make them more expensive compared to those from Vietnam or Bangladesh.
    • Disruption of Supply Chains: Tariff barriers may affect cross-border supply chains, increasing production costs and causing delays in delivery. Example: Indian automotive components exported to U.S. manufacturers may face disruptions, affecting just-in-time production systems.
    • Reduced Investment and Market Access: Tariffs create uncertainty, discouraging foreign direct investment (FDI) and limiting India’s access to the lucrative U.S. market. Example: Electronics manufacturers considering India as a production hub may shift investments to low-tariff countries to maintain U.S. market access.

    Way forward: 

    • Diversify Export Markets: Strengthen trade ties with emerging economies (e.g., Africa, Southeast Asia) and regional blocs to reduce dependence on the U.S. market.
    • Enhance Domestic Manufacturing Competitiveness: Promote Make in India, invest in advanced technologies, and offer export incentives to reduce costs and improve global market access.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Do you agree that the Indian economy has recently experienced V-shaped recovery? Give reasons in support of your answer.  (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • ‘AI Kosha’ Platform

    Why in the News?

    The Union Government has launched AI Kosha, a platform dedicated to non-personal datasets, marking a major step in India’s AI research and development efforts.

    What is AI Kosha?

    • AI Kosha is a government-backed platform for non-personal datasets to support Artificial Intelligence (AI) R&D in India.
    • It serves as a centralized repository of structured datasets aimed at training AI models, particularly for Indian languages.
    • The platform is a key part of the IndiaAI Datasets Platform, one of the seven pillars of the ₹10,370 crore IndiaAI Mission, which aims to democratize AI access and innovation.
    • At launch, it hosts 316 datasets, with a significant portion focused on language translation tools for Indian languages.
    • The government has commissioned 14,000 GPUs for AI research, up from 10,000 earlier this year.
    • More computing power will be added quarterly to support advanced AI research and training.

    Key Features of AI Kosha:

    • AI Kosha aims to support India’s first foundational AI model, similar to China’s DeepSeek.
    • Works alongside the Open Governance Data Platform (data.gov.in), which already hosts 12,000 datasets from various government agencies.
    • Focuses on Indian languages, ensuring regional language AI development.
    • Includes health records, satellite imagery, Census 2011 data, meteorological and pollution data.
    • Supports AI development with access to high-performance computing (HPC) resources.
    • Equipped with secure API access, data encryption, and real-time filtering for data protection.

  • Ongole Cows

    Why in the News?

    India’s indigenous cattle breed from Ongole is experiencing a sharp decline domestically, even as it has become one of the most prized and expensive cattle breeds in Brazil.

    Ongole Cows

    About Ongole Cows

    • Ongole cattle, also known as Ongolu Gitta, are a native Indian breed originating from Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh.
    • This Bos indicus breed is historically renowned for its strength, resilience, and disease resistance.
    • It has been widely used for draught power, milk production, and breeding programs.
    • The breed has gained global prominence, especially in Brazil, where it forms the foundation of several superior cattle breeds used for beef production.
    • Though declining in India, they thrive in Brazil, where they form 80% of the cattle population and are used extensively for beef production.
    • LAM Farm, Guntur, is using IVF and embryo transfer for preservation.

    Distinct Features of Ongole Cattle:

    • Heat & Disease Resistance: Naturally adapted to high temperatures and immune to foot-and-mouth and mad cow disease.
    • Strength & Draught Power: Historically used for ploughing, transport, and bull races.
    • A2 Milk Production: Produces high-quality A2 milk, fetching ₹150+ per litre in premium markets.
    • Global Demand & Genetic Superiority: Exported to Brazil, USA, Argentina, and Australia. Used to develop breeds like Brahmana (USA) and Santa Gertrudis (USA).
    • Efficient Feed Conversion: Survives on minimal fodder, ideal for drought-prone regions.
    • High Fertility & Longevity: Strong reproductive lifespan, producing robust calves.
    • Cultural & Historical Importance:  Revered in Indian scriptures and associated with prosperity.

    PYQ:

    [2011] What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found in India?

    1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater.

    2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.

    3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Is Artificial Intelligence affecting critical thinking skills?

    Why in the News?

    Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools are being used more and more in classrooms worldwide.In India, a study by TeamLease EdTech last year found that over 61% of educators are using AI tools.

    What are the key findings as per the TeamLease EdTech?

    A study by TeamLease EdTech titled “Revolutionising Classrooms: The Impact of Generative AI on the Future of Education” surveyed over 6,000 educators across India, including school teachers and university professors. 

    • Widespread Adoption of AI Tools: Approximately 61.60% of educators are utilizing AI tools for teaching, preparation, and student engagement.
    • Recognition of AI’s Transformative Potential: Around 64.87% of educators acknowledge that AI has the potential to transform learning experiences and personalize education.
    • Preparation for an AI-Dominated Future: About 63.61% of educators believe that integrating AI is crucial for preparing students for a future where AI is prevalent.
    • Advocacy for AI Regulation: A significant 87.85% of educators support government regulation and monitoring of AI development and application to address ethical implications.
    • Need for Teacher Training in AI: Approximately 54.92% of educators express the need for AI training to ensure teachers are prepared for AI integration in education.

    What are the key concerns regarding the use of AI in education?

    • Over-Reliance on AI and Reduced Critical Thinking: Students may become dependent on AI-generated responses, leading to a decline in their ability to critically analyze information. Example: If students use AI tools like ChatGPT for essay writing without verification, they may accept biased or inaccurate information without questioning it.
    • Ethical and Privacy Issues: AI tools collect and store user data, raising questions about the privacy and security of sensitive academic information. Example: Using AI-powered platforms without adequate security may expose student data to third parties, violating privacy regulations like GDPR.
    • Unequal Access and Digital Divide: Not all students and institutions have equal access to advanced AI tools, widening the educational inequality gap. Example: Rural schools with limited technological infrastructure may struggle to implement AI-based learning.

    Why is it important for educational institutions to develop their own AI usage policies?

    • Ensuring Ethical and Responsible AI Use: Clear policies guide the ethical use of AI, preventing misuse, plagiarism, and data breaches. Example: A university policy on AI-assisted research can outline acceptable use, ensuring students disclose AI-generated content in academic work.
    • Protecting Student Privacy and Data Security: Policies help safeguard sensitive student information and comply with legal standards like GDPR or India’s DPDP Act. Example: Schools can restrict AI tools from accessing personal data by enforcing guidelines on how and when these technologies are used.
    • Maintaining Academic Integrity and Fair Assessment: AI policies uphold the integrity of learning by defining appropriate AI use in assignments and assessments. Example: A school policy may allow AI for research assistance but prohibit its use in writing final exam essays to ensure fair evaluation.

    When should AI tools be integrated into the curriculum? 

    • When Enhancing Personalized Learning: AI tools should be introduced when they can tailor educational content to individual student needs, improving learning outcomes. Example: Adaptive learning platforms like Khan Academy or Duolingo can adjust the difficulty of lessons based on a student’s progress, offering personalized learning paths.
    • When Supporting Skill Development for the Future: AI should be integrated when it helps students develop critical skills like data analysis, problem-solving, and digital literacy, which are essential for future careers. Example: Teaching AI programming using platforms like TensorFlow or Scratch can prepare students for careers in technology and data science.
    • When Facilitating Innovative Teaching Methods: AI tools should be included when they enhance creative and interactive teaching approaches that traditional methods cannot achieve. Example: Virtual labs using AI simulations in subjects like biology or physics allow students to conduct experiments safely and repeatedly, improving comprehension.

    How can educators balance the use of AI while fostering critical thinking and analytical skills in students?

    • Aligning AI Tools with Specific Learning Outcomes: AI should be used when it directly supports and enhances the achievement of clearly defined educational goals. Example: If the objective is to improve analytical reasoning, AI-powered data visualization tools like Tableau can help students interpret complex datasets and draw meaningful insights.
    • Enhancing Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills: AI should be integrated when it fosters deeper learning by encouraging inquiry, creativity, and solution-oriented thinking. Example: AI-driven coding platforms like Scratch or Python Tutor can promote computational thinking and logical reasoning through hands-on programming tasks.
    • Supporting Assessment and Feedback Mechanisms: AI should be used to provide timely, personalized feedback that aligns with the learning objectives and helps track student progress. Example: Automated grading systems like Grammarly or Turnitin can assist in assessing writing skills and offer constructive feedback to improve academic writing.

    Way forward: 

    • Develop Comprehensive AI Literacy Programs: Equip educators and students with the skills to critically evaluate AI outputs, ensuring responsible and informed use.
    • Establish Clear, Adaptive AI Governance Frameworks: Implement dynamic policies that balance innovation with ethical standards, ensuring equitable access and academic integrity.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.(UPSC IAS/2017)

  • Successful PHTA Test of ISRO’s Semi-Cryogenic Engine

    Why in the News?

    ISRO successfully conducted a hot test on the semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000), a key step towards finalizing the cryogenic stage for future launch vehicles. This Power Head Test Article (PHTA) is the first hardware test for semi-cryogenic engines.

    About the SE2000 Engine

    • The SE2000 engine is a semi-cryogenic rocket engine developed by ISRO to enhance propulsion for future heavy-lift launch vehicles.
    • It is designed to power the booster stages of rockets, increasing payload capacity and efficiency.
    • The engine operates on a Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Refined Kerosene (RP-1) combination, unlike traditional cryogenic engines that use LOX and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2).
    • Key features of the SE2000 engine:
      • Thrust capability: 2000 kN (kilonewtons), making it one of ISRO’s most powerful engines.
      • Higher density impulse: Provides better efficiency than LOX-LH2 combinations.
      • Cost-effective: Kerosene is cheaper and easier to handle than liquid hydrogen.
      • Storage advantages: Kerosene can be stored at ambient temperatures, unlike liquid hydrogen, which requires -253°C for storage.
    • The engine is expected to enhance the performance of LVM3 and will be used in ISRO’s Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).
    • Applications of the SE2000 engine:
      • Heavy-lift launch missions with increased payload capacity.
      • Future space exploration programs, including human spaceflight missions like Gaganyaan.
      • Reusable launch vehicles, contributing to cost-effective and sustainable space travel.

    What is the PHTA Test?

    • The PHTA test is a crucial hardware test conducted as part of the SE2000 semi-cryogenic engine development process.
    • It is designed to validate key engine subsystems before full-scale integration and testing.
    • Purpose of the PHTA test:
      • Ensure subsystems perform as expected under operational conditions.
      • Evaluate pressure, temperature, thrust efficiency, and fuel combustion.
      • Identify potential technical issues before moving to full engine testing.
    • A previous attempt in July 2023 was aborted due to technical issues at ISRO’s Mahendragiri facility.

    Back2Basics: Semi-Cryogenic vs. Cryogenic Engines

    • A semi-cryogenic engine uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants, making it easier to handle and store than the cryogenic engine, which uses liquid hydrogen (LH2).
    • Semi-cryogenic engines are less efficient but more cost-effective and practical for Earth-orbit missions.
    • Cryogenic engines offer higher performance due to the higher specific impulse of liquid hydrogen but are more complex to store and manage.
    • Semi-cryogenic engines strike a balance between cost, efficiency, and simplicity.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:

    1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

    2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

    3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch l vehicle with the first and third stages l using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 2

    (d) 3 only

     

  • UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

    Why in the News?

    In December 2024, a 500 kg metal object crashed in Makueni County, Kenya, highlighting the growing concern over uncontrolled satellite re-entries, for which the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) remains accountable.

    It has yet to implement binding regulations on space debris disposal and re-entry control.

    About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

    • The COPUOS was established in 1958 to promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of outer space and address legal issues related to space exploration.
    • The committee currently has 102 member states (as of 2022) and meets annually in Vienna, Austria.
    • COPUOS plays a key role in preventing the militarization of space and ensuring responsible space activity.
    • Historical Context:
      • Established following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, COPUOS was instrumental in preventing space from becoming a new conflict zone.
      • Resolution 1721 (1961) declared that international law applies in outer space and directed states to report all space launches to the UN public registry.
    • Subcommittees:
      • Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (meets in February).
      • Legal Subcommittee (meets in April).

    Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:

    • COPUOS oversees five key UN treaties and agreements related to space activities:
    1. Outer Space Treaty (1967):  Establishes principles for space exploration and prohibits national sovereignty over celestial bodies.
    2. Rescue Agreement (1968): Governs the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
    3. Liability Convention (1972): Defines responsibility for damage caused by space objects, introducing absolute liability for damages on Earth.
    4. Registration Convention (1976): Requires states to register launched space objects with the UN.
    5. Moon Treaty (1984): Regulates activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies.

    Defining Space Debris in Law

    • Space debris has no universally accepted legal definition in international treaties.
    • The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) defines it as non-functional man-made objects in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere.
    • Legal disputes arise over whether a piece of debris qualifies as a “space object” under the 1972 Liability Convention.

    Liability Under International Space Law

    • Outer Space Treaty (1967), Article VI: States bear responsibility for national space activities, including those by private companies.
    • Liability Convention (1972): Introduced “absolute liability”, meaning launching states are automatically responsible for damage caused by space objects.
      • However, liability enforcement remains weak, and affected nations often struggle to claim full compensation.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above their territory. What do you understand by ‘airspace’? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggest ways to contain the threat.